The impacts of herbivores on macroalgae have been relatively well studied in the last decades (e.g., Carpenter 1986; Choat 1991; Hixon and Brostoff 1996; Harborne et al. 2006; Vinueza et al. 2006), probably because of their profound effects in both temperate and tropical communities and their importance as major conduits of energy between autotrophs and the rest of the food web. Nonetheless, very little is understood about how macroalgal chemical defenses – against herbivores or against competitors, epibionts, pathogens, etc. – function and what their exact role is in structuring marine communities. Tropical marine communities are well known to possess a plethora of macroalgal species (see Lüning 1990; Kerswell 2006), as well as an equally high diversity of herbivores (Floeter et al. 2005), which exert an intense, constant, and unparalleled pressure on the former, presumably selecting, over evolutionary timescales, for the presence of diverse and effective chemical defenses. In this scenario of bottom-up control, a number of counteradaptations are supposed to have occurred in herbivores, including feeding specialization and sequestration of defenses, which represent potential steps toward a top-down control of macroalgal communities. However, experimental evidence to support these assumptions remains largely elusive. This chapter attempts to review, although not exhaustively, our current knowledge of different aspects of chemical defenses from tropical macroalgae and their potential effects on tropical marine benthic community structure. The focus will be on known examples that support or rebut theoretical assumptions about tropical communities in an effort to point the reader toward new trends or research priorities that emerge from our current knowledge about marine tropical systems.
This chapter primarily considers aspects of chemical defenses in tropical macroalgae belonging to the divisions Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta, but also includes macroscopic and conspicuous tropical Cyanobacteria that can be important in structuring tropical marine benthic communities.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Amade P, Lemée R (1998) Chemical defence of the Mediterranean alga Caulerpa taxifolia: variations in caulerpenyne production. Aq Toxicol 43:287–300
Amsler CD, Fairhead VA (2006) Defensive and sensory chemical ecology of brown algae. Adv Bot Res 43:1–91
Amsler CD, Iken K, McClintock JB, Amsler MO, Peters KJ, Hubbard JM, Furrow FB, Baker BJ (2005) Comprehensive evaluation of the palatability and chemical defenses of subtidal macroalgae from the Antarctic Peninsula. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 294:141–159
Bakus GJ, Green G (1974) Toxicity in sponges and holothurians: a geographic pattern. Science 185:951–953
Barbosa JP, Teixeira VL, Pereira RC (2004) A dolabellane diterpene from the brown alga Dictyota pfaffii as chemical defense against herbivores. Bot Mar 47:147–151
Beach K, Walters L, Borgeas H, Smith C, Coyer J, Vroom P (2003) The impact of Dictyota spp. on Halimeda populations of Conch Reef, Florida Keys. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 297:141–159
Bhadury P, Wright PC (2004) Exploitation of marine algae: biogenic compounds for potential antifouling applications. Planta 219:561–578
Blunt JW, Copp BR, Hu W-P, Munro MHG, Northcote PT, Prinsep MR (2007) Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 24:31–86
Bolser RC, Hay ME (1996) Are tropical plants better defended? Palatability and defenses of temperate versus tropical seaweeds. Ecology 77:2269–2286
Boudouresque CF, Lemme R, Mari X, Meinesz A (1996) The invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia is not a suitable diet for the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Aq Bot 53:245–250
Briggs JC (1974) Marine zoogeography. McGraw-Hill, New York
Carpenter RC (1986) Partitioning herbivory and its effects on coral reef algal communities. Ecol Monogr 56:345–346
Ceccherelli G, Piazzi L, Balata D (2002) Spread of introduced Caulerpa species in macroalgal habitats. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 280:1–11
Chapin III FS, Sala OE, Burke IC, Grime JP, Hooper DU, Laurenroth WK, Lombard A, Mooney HA, Moiser AR, Naeem S, Pacala SW, Roy J, Steffen WL, Tilman D (1998) Ecosystem consequences of changing biodiversity. BioScience 48:45–52
Choat JH (1991) The biology of herbivorous fishes on coral reefs. In: Sale PF (ed) The ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Academic, San Diego, CA, pp 120–155
Clare AS (1996) Marine natural product antifoulants: status and potential. Biofouling 9:211–229
Clayton MN (1988) Evolution and life histories of brown algae. Bot Mar 31:379–387
Connell JH (1961) The influence of interspecific competition and other factors on the distribution of the barnacle Chthamalus stellatus. Ecology 42:710–723
Cronin G, Hay ME (1996) Chemical defenses, protein content, and susceptibility to herbivory of diploid vs. haploid stages of the isomorphic brown alga Dictyota ciliolata (Phaeophyta). Bot Mar 39:395–399
Cronin G, Paul VJ, Hay ME, Fenical W (1997) Are tropical herbivores more resistant than temperate herbivores to seaweed chemical defenses? Diterpenoid metabolites from Dictyota acutiloba as feeding deterrents for tropical versus temperate fishes and urchins. J Chem Ecol 23:289–302
Cruz-Rivera E, Paul VJ (2007) Chemical deterrence of a cyanobacterial metabolite against generalized and specialist grazers. J Chem Ecol 33:213–217
Da Gama BAP, Pereira RC, Soares AR, Teixeira VL, Yoneshigue-Valentin Y (2003) Is the mussel test a good indicator of antifouling activity? A comparison between laboratory and field tests. Biofouling 19:161–169
Dahms HU, Ying X, Pfeiffer C (2006) Antifouling potential of cyanobacteria: a mini-review. Biofouling 22:317–327
Davis AR, Targett NM, McConnell OJ, Young CM (1989) Epibiosis of marine and benthic invertebrates: natural products chemistry and other mechanisms inhibiting settlement and overgrowth. In: Scheuer PJ (ed) Bioorganic marine chemistry, vol 3. Springer, Berlin, pp 85–114
Davis AR, Benkendorff K, Ward DW (2005) Responses of common SE Australian herbivores to three suspected invasive Caulerpa spp. Mar Biol 146:859–868
de Nys R, Coll JC, Price IR (1991) Chemically mediated interactions between the red alga Plocamium hamatum (Rhodophyta) and the octocoral Sinularia cruciata (Alcyonacea). Mar Biol 108:315–320
de Nys R, Steinberg PD, Willemsen P, Dworjanyn SA, Gabelish CL, King RJ (1995) Broad spectrum effects of secondary metabolites from the red alga Delisea pulchra in antifouling assays. Biofouling 8:259–271
de Nys R, Dworjanyn A, Steinberg PD (1998) A new method for determining surface concentrations of natural products on seaweeds. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 162:79–87
Dick LJ, De Wreede RE (1995) Patterns of seasonal demographic change in the alternate isomorphic stages of Mazzaella splendens (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). Phycologia 34:390–395
Duffy JE, Hay ME (2001) The ecology and evolution of marine consumer-prey interactions. In: Bertness MD, Gaines SD, Hay ME (eds) Marine community ecology. Sinauer Associate, Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp 131–157
Dworjanyn SA, De Nys R, Steinberg PD (2006) Chemically mediated antifouling in the red alga Delisea pulchra. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 318:153–163
Engel C, Aberg P, Gaggiotti O, Destombe C, Valero M (2001) Population dynamics and stage structure in a haploid-diploid red seaweed, Gracilaria gracilis. J Ecol 89:436–450
Fairhead VA, Amsler CD, McClintock JB, Baker BJ (2006) Lack of defense or phlorotannin induction by UV radiation or mesograzers in Desmarestia anceps and D. menziesii (Phaeophyceae). J Phycol 42:1174–1183
Faulkner DJ (2002) Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 19:1–48
Floeter SR, Behrens MD, Ferreira CEL, Paddack MJ, Horn MH (2005) Geographical gradients of marine herbivorous fishes: patterns and processes. Mar Biol 147:1435–1447
Fusetani N (2004) Biofouling and antifouling. Nat Prod Rep 21:94–104
Gaines SD, Lubchenco J (1982) A unified approach to marine plant-herbivore interactions. II. Biogeography. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 13:111–138
Gaines SD, Roughgarden J (1985) Larval settlement rate: a leading determinant of structure in an ecological community of the marine intertidal zone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:3707–3711
Gottlieb OR (1989) The role of oxygen in phytochemical evolution towards diversity. Phytochemistry 28:2545–2548
Gottlieb OR (1990) Phytochemistry: differentiation and function. Phytochemistry 29:1715–1724
Harborne AR, Mumby PJ, Micheli F, Perry CT, Dahlgren CP, Holmes KE, Brumbaugh DR (2006) The functional value of Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove habitats to ecosystem processes. Adv Mar Biol 50:57–189
Harper MK, Bugni TS, Copp BR, James RD, Lindasay BS, Richardson AD, Schnabel PC, Tasdemir D, VanWagoner RM, Verbitski SM, Ireland CM (2001) Introduction to the chemical ecology of marine natural products. In: McClintock JB, Baker BJ (eds) Marine chemical ecology. CRC, Bocca Raton, FL, pp 267–300
Hay ME (1981) Spatial patterns of grazing intensity on a Caribbean barrier reef: herbivory and algal distribution. Aq Bot 11:97–109
Hay ME (1986) Associational plant defenses and the maintenance of species diversity: turning competitors into accomplices. Am Nat 128:617–641
Hay ME (1992) The role of seaweed chemical defenses in the evolution of feeding specialization and in the mediation of complex interactions. In: Paul VJ (ed) Ecological roles for marine natural products. Comstock Press, Ithaca, NY, pp 93–118
Hay ME (1996) Marine chemical ecology: what’s known and what’s next? J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 200:103–134
Hay ME, Fenical W (1988) Marine plant-herbivore interactions: the ecology of chemical defense. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 19:111–145
Hay ME, Fenical W (1992) Chemical mediation of seaweed-herbivore interactions. In: John DM, Hawkins SS, Price JH (eds) Plant-animal interactions in the marine benthos. Systematics Association Special Volume I. Clarendon, Oxford, pp 319–337
Hay ME, Fenical W (1996) Chemical ecology and marine biodiversity: insights and products from the sea. Oceanography 9:10–20
Hay ME, Steinberg PD (1992) The chemical ecology of plant-herbivore interactions in marine versus terrestrial communities. In: Rosenthal J, Berenbaum M (eds) Herbivores: their interaction with secondary plant metabolites. Evolutionary and ecological processes, vol. II. Academic, New York, pp 371–413
Hay ME, Fenical W, Gustafson K (1987) Chemical defense against diverse coral reef herbivores. Ecology 68:1581–1591
Hay ME, Duffy JE, Fenical W, Gustafson K (1988a) Chemical defense in the seaweed Dictyopteris delicatula: differential effects against reef fishes and amphipods. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 48:185–192
Hay ME, Renaud PE, Fenical W (1988b) Large mobile versus small sedentary herbivores and their resistance to seaweed chemical defenses. Oecologia 75:246–252
Hay ME, Duffy JE, Paul VJ, Renaud PE, Fenical W (1990) Specialist herbivores reduce their susceptibility to predation by feeding on the chemically-defended seaweed Avrainvillea longicaulis. Limnol Oceanogr 35:1734–1743
Hay ME, Kappel QE, Fenical W (1994) Synergisms in plant defenses against herbivores: interactions of chemistry, calcification, and plant quality. Ecology 75:1714–1726
Hay ME, Stachowicz JJ, Cruz-Rivera E, Bullard S, Deal MS, Lindquist N (1998) Bioassays with marine and freshwater macroorganisms. In: Haynes KF, Millar JG (eds) Methods in chemical ecology, vol 2. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 39–141
Hixon MA, Brostoff WN (1996) Succession and herbivory: effects of differential fish grazing on Hawaiian coral-reef algae. Ecology 66:77–90
Horn MH (1989) Biology of marine herbivorous fishes. Oceanogr Mar Biol Ann Rev 27: 167–272
Ianora A, Boersma M, Casotti R, Fontana A, Herder J, Hoffmann F, Pavia H, Potin P, Poulet SA, Toth G (2006) New trends in marine chemical ecology. Estuaries and Coasts 29:531–551
Jousson O, Pawlowski J, Zaninetti L, Zechman EW, Dini F, Di Guiseppe G, Woodfield R, Millar A, Meneisz A (2000) Invasive alga reaches California. Nature 408:157–158
Karez R, Engelbert S, Sommer U (2000) ‘Coconsumption’ and ‘protective coating’: two new proposed effects of epiphytes on their macroalgal hosts in mesograzer-epiphyte host interactions. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 205:85–93
Kerswell AP (2006) Global biodiversity patterns of benthic marine algae. Ecology 87:2479–2488
Klinger T (1993) The persistence of haplodiploidy in algae. Trends Ecol Evol 8:256–258
Krebs CJ (2001) Ecology: the experimental analysis of distribution and abundance. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco
Lee CE (2002) Evolutionary genetics of invasive species. Trends Ecol Evol 17:386–391
Leonardi PI, Miravalles AB, Faugeron S, Flores V, Beltrán J, Correa JA (2006) Diversity, phenomenology and epidemiology of epiphytism in farmed Gracilaria chilensis (Rhodophyta) in northern Chile. Eur J Phycol 41:247–257
Lewis SM (1985) Herbivory on coral reefs: algal susceptibility to herbivorous fishes. Oecologia 65:370–375
Lewis SM (1986) The role of herbivorous fishes in the organization of a Caribbean reef community. Ecol Monogr 56:183–200
Lima LMS, Alor R, Uriostegui R, Murray SN, Pereira RC. Within-plant variation in palatability and chemical defenses in the green seaweed Avrainvillea elliottii. Bot Mar (submitted for publication)
Littler MM, Taylor PR, Littler DS (1986) Plant defense associations in the marine environment. Coral Reefs 5:63–71
Lubchenco J (1978) Plant species diversity in a marine intertidal community: importance of herbivore food preference and algal competitive abilities. Am Nat 112:23–39
Lumbang WA, Paul VJ (1996) Chemical defenses of the tropical green seaweed Neomeris annulata Dickie: effects of multiple compounds on feeding by herbivores. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 201:185–195
Lüning K (1990) Seaweeds. Their environment, biogeography, and ecophysiology. Wiley, New York
Marques LV, Villaça R, Pereira RC (2006) Susceptibility of macroalgae to herbivorous fishes at Rocas Atoll, Brazil. Bot Mar 49:379–385
McCook LJ (1999) Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18:357–367
McCook LJ, Jompa J, Diaz-Pulido G (2001) Competition between corals and algae on coral reefs: a review of evidence and mechanisms. Coral Reefs 19:400–417
McCoy ED, Heck KL (1976) Biogeography of corals, seagrasses, and mangroves: an alternative to the center of origin concept. Syst Zool 25:201–210
Meneisz A, Hesse B (1991) Introduction et invasion de l’algue tropicale Caulerpa taxifolia en Mediterranée nord-occidentale. Oceanol Acta 14:415–426
Meneisz A, de Vaugelas J, Hesse B, Mari X (1993) Spread of the introduced tropical green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in northern Mediterranean waters. J Appl Phycol 5:141–147
Meyer KD, Paul VJ, Sanger HR, Nelson SG (1994) Effects of seaweed extracts and secondary metabolites on feeding by the herbivorous surgeonfish Naso lituratus. Coral Reefs 13:105–112
Modena M, Matricardi G, Vacchi M, Guidetti P (2000) Spreading of Caulerpa recemosa (Forsskal) J. Agardh (Bryopsidaceae, Chlorophyta) along the coasts of the Ligurian Sea. Cryptogam Algol 21:301–304
Moore RE (1996) Cyclic peptides and depsipeptides from cyanobacteria: a review. J Ind Microbiol 16:134–143
Morrison D (1988) Comparing fish and sea urchin grazing in shallow and deeper coral reef algal communities. Ecology 69:1367–1382
Moyle PB, Light T (1996) Biological invasions of fresh water: empirical rules and assemblage theory. Biol Conserv 78:149–161
Nagle DG, Paul VJ (1999) Production of secondary metabolites by filamentous tropical marine cyanobacteria: ecological functions of the compounds. J Phycol 35:1412–1421
Nagle DG, Camacho FT, Paul VJ (1998) Dietary preferences of the opisthobranch mollusc Stylocheilus longicauda for secondary metabolites produced by the tropical cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. Mar Biol 132:267–273
Nylund GM, Gribben PE, de Nys R, Steinberg PD, Pavia H (2007) Surface chemistry versus whole-cell extracts: antifouling tests with seaweed metabolites. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 329:73–84
Ogden J (1976) Some aspects of herbivore-plant relationships on Caribbean reefs and seagrass beds. Aq Bot 2:103–116
Paine RT (1974) Intertidal community structure: experimental studies on the relationship between a dominant competitor and its principal predator. Oecologia 15:93–120
Park M, Fenical W, Hay ME (1992) Debromoisocymobarbatol, a new chromanol feeding deterrent from the marine alga Cymopolia barbata. Phytochemistry 31:4115–4118
Paul VJ (1987) Feeding deterrent effects of algal natural products. Bull Mar Sci 41:514–522
Paul VJ (1992) Ecological roles for marine natural products. Comstock, Ithaca, NY
Paul VJ, Fenical W (1986) Chemical defense in tropical green algae, order Caulerpales. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 34:157–169
Paul VJ, Hay ME (1986) Seaweed susceptibility to herbivory: chemical and morphological correlates. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 33:255–264
Paul VJ, Puglisi MP (2004) Chemical mediation of interactions among marine organisms. Nat Prod Rep 21:189–209
Paul VJ, Hay ME, Duffy JE, Fenical W, Gustafson K (1987) Chemical defense in the seaweed Ochtodes secundiramea (Montague) Howe (Rhodophyta): effects of its monoterpenoid components upon diverse coral-reef herbivores. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 114:249–260
Paul VJ, Cruz-Rivera E, Thacker RW (2001) Chemical mediation of macroalgal-herbivore interactions: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. In: McClintock JB, Baker BJ (eds) Marine chemical ecology. CRC, pp 227–265
Paul VJ, Thacker RW, Banks K, Golubic S (2005) Benthic cyanobacterial bloom impacts the reefs of South Florida (Broward County, USA). Coral Reefs 24:693–697
Paul VJ, Puglisi MP, Ritson-Williams R (2006) Marine chemical ecology. Nat Prod Rep 23:153–180
Pennings SC, Paul VJ (1992) Effect of plant toughness, calcification, and chemistry on herbivory by Dolabella auricularia. Ecology 73:1606–1619
Pennings SC, Puglisi MP, Pitlik TJ, Himaya AC, Paul VJ (1996) Effects of secondary metabolites and CaCO3 on feeding by surgeonfishes and parrotfishes: within-plant comparisons. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 134:49–58
Pennings SC, Pablo SR, Paul VJ (1997) Chemical defenses of the tropical, benthic marine cyanobacterium Hormothamnion enteromorphoides: Diverse consumers and synergisms. Limnol Oceanogr 42:911–917
Pereira RC, Teixeira VL (1999) Sesquiterpenos das algas marinhas Laurencia lamouroux (Ceramiales, Rhodophyta). 1. Significado ecológico. Quim Nova 22:360–374
Pereira RC, Yoneshigue-Valentin Y (1999) The role of polyphenols from the tropical brown alga Sargassum furcatum on the feeding by amphipod herbivores. Bot Mar 42:441–448
Pereira RC, Cavalcanti DN, Teixeira VL (2000a) Effects of secondary metabolites from the tropical Brazilian brown alga Dictyota menstrualis on the amphipod Parhyale hawaiensis. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 205:95–100
Pereira RC, Donato R, Teixeira VL, Cavalcanti DN (2000b) Chemotaxis and chemical defenses in seaweed susceptibility to herbivory. Rev Bras Biol 60:405–414
Pereira RC, Da Gama BAP, Teixeira VL, Yoneshigue-Valentin Y (2003) Ecological roles of natural products of the Brazilian red seaweed Laurencia obtusa. Rev Bras Biol 63:665–672
Pereira RC, Pinheiro MD, Teixeira VL, Da Gama BAP (2002) Feeding preferences of the endemic gastropod Astraea latispina in relation to chemical defenses of Brazilian tropical seaweeds. Braz J Biol 62:33–40
Pereira RC, Soares AR, Teixeira VL, Villaça R, Da Gama BAP (2004) Variation in chemical defenses against herbivory in southwestern Atlantic Stypopodium zonale (Phaeophyta). Bot Mar 47:202–208
Pfister CA, Hay ME (1988) Associational plant refuges: convergent patterns in marine and terrestrial communities result from differing mechanisms. Oecologia 77:118–129
Piazzi L, Balestri E, Cinelli F (1994) Presence of Caulerpa racemosa in the north-western Mediterranean. Cryptogam Algol 15:183–189
Ragan MA, Glombitza K-W (1986) Phlorotannins, brown algal polyphenols. Prog Phycol Res 4:129–241
Railkin AI (2004) Marine biofouling: colonization processes and defenses. CRC, Boca Raton, FL
Reichard SH, Hamilton CV (1997) Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America. Conserv Biol 11:193–203
Roussis V, King RL, Fenical W (1993) Secondary metabolite chemistry of the Australian brown alga Encyothalia cliftonii: evidence for herbivore chemical defence. Phytochemistry 34:107–111
Sax DF, Stachowicz JJ, Gaines SD (eds) (2005) Species invasions: insights into ecology, evolution and biogeography. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 495
Schmitt TM, Hay ME, Lindquist N (1995) Constraints on chemically-mediated coevolution: multiple functions for seaweed secondary metabolites. Ecology 76:107–123
Schmitt TM, Lindquist N, Hay ME (1998) Seaweed secondary metabolites as antifoulants: effects of Dictyota spp. diterpenes on survivorship, settlement, and development of invertebrate larvae. Chemoecology 8:125–131
Schmittner A, Stoecker TF (1999) The stability of the thermohaline circulation in global warming experiments. J Climate 12:1117–1133
Schnitzler I, Boland W, Hay ME (1998) Organic sulfur compounds from Dictyopteris spp. deter feeding by an herbivorous amphipod (Ampithoe longimana) but not by a herbivorous sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata). J Chem Ecol 24:1715–1732
Shen Y, Tsai PI, Fenical W, Hay ME (1993) Secondary metabolite chemistry of the Caribbean marine alga Sporochnus bolleanus: a basis for herbivore chemical defense. Phytochemistry 32:71–75
Schupp PJ, Paul VJ (1994) Calcium carbonate and secondary metabolites in tropical seaweeds: variable effects on herbivorous fishes. Ecology 75:1172–1185
Smit AJ (2004) Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of seaweed natural products: a review. J Appl Phycol 16:245–262
Sousa WP (1979) Experimental investigations of disturbance and ecological succession in a rocky intertidal algal community. Ecol Monogr 49:227–254
Steinberg PD, Paul VJ (1990) Fish feeding and chemical defenses of tropical brown-algae in western Australia. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 58:253–259
Sudatti DB, Rodrigues SV, Pereira RC (2006) Quantitative GC-ECD analysis of halogenated metabolites: determination of surface and within-thallus elatol of Laurencia obtusa. J Chem Ecol 32:835–843
Sudatti DB, Rodrigues SV, Coutinho R, Da Gama BAP, Salgado LT, Amado Filho GM, Pereira RC. Transport and defensive role of elatol at the surface of the red seaweed Laurencia obtusa. J Phycol (in press)
Suzuki Y, Takabayashi T, Kawaguchi T, Matsunaga K (1998) Isolation of an allelopathic substance from the crustose coralline algae, Litophyllum spp., and its effect on the brown alga, Laminaria religiosa Miyabe (Phaeophyta). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 225:69–77
Targett NM, McConnell OJ (1982) Detection of secondary metabolites in marine macroalgae using the marine periwinkle, Littorina irrorata Say, as an indicator organism. J Chem Ecol 8:115–124
Teixeira VL, Barbosa JP, Rocha FD, Kaplan MAC, Houghton PJ, Pereira RC (2006) Hydroperoxysterols from the Brazilian brown seaweeds Dictyopteris justii and Spatoglossum schroederi (Dictyotales): a defensive strategy against herbivory. Nat Prod Commun 1: 293–297
Thacker RW, Nagle DG, Paul VJ (1997) Effects of repeated exposures to marine cyanobacterial secondary metabolites on feeding by juvenile rabbitfish and parrotfish. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 147:21–29
Toth GB, Pavia H (2006) Artificial wounding decreases plant biomass and shoot strength of the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucales, Phaeophyceae). Mar Biol 148:1193–1199
Tugwell S, Branch GM (1989) Differential polyphenolic distribution among tissues in the kelps Ecklonia maxima, Laminaria pallida and Macrocystis angustifolia in relation to plant-defence theory. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 129:219–230
Uchimura M, Sandeauz R, Larroque C (1999) The enzymatic detoxifying system of a native Mediterranean scorpion fish is affected by Caulerpa taxifolia in its environment. Environ Sci Technol 33:1671–1674
Underwood AJ (2000) Experimental ecology of rocky intertidal habitats: what are we learning? J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 250:51–76
Valero M, Richerd S, Perrot V, Destombe C (1992) Evolution of alternation of haploid and diploid phases in life cycles. Trends Ecol Evol 7:25–29
Van Alstyne KL (1995) Comparison of three methods for quantifying brown algal polyphenolic compounds. J Chem Ecol 21:45–58
Van Alstyne KL, Paul VJ (1990) The biogeography of polyphenolic compounds in marine macroalgae – temperate brown algal defenses deter feeding by tropical herbivorous fishes. Ooecologia 84:158–163
Van der Strate H, Van de Zande L, Stam WT, Olsen JL (2002) The contribution of haploids, diploids and clones to fine-scale population structure in the seaweed Cladophoropsis membranacea (Chlorophyta). Mol Ecol 11:329–345
Verlaque M, Boudouresque CF, Meinesz A, Gravez V (2000) The Caulerpa racemosa complex (Caulerpales, Ulvophyceae) in the Mediterranean sea. Bot Mar 43:49–68
Vinueza LR, Branch GM, Branch ML, Bustamante RH (2006) Top-down herbivory and bottom-up El Nino effects on Galapagos rocky-shore communities. Ecol Monogr 76:111–131
Wahl M and Hay ME (1995) Associational resistance and shared doom: effects of epibiosis on herbivory. Oecologia 102:329–340
Watkinson AJ, O’Neil JM, Dennison WC (2005) Ecophysiology of the marine cyanobacterium, Lyngbya majuscula (Oscillatoriaceae) in Moreton Bay, Australia. Harmful Algae 4:697–715
Weidner K, Lages BG, Da Gama BAP, Molis M, Wahl M, Pereira RC (2004) Effect of mesograzers and nutrient levels on induction of defenses in several Brazilian macroalgae. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 283:113–125
Wikström SA, Steinarsdóttir MB, Kautsky L, Pavia H (2006) Increased chemical resistance explains low herbivore colonization of introduced seaweed. Oecologia 148:593–601
Williams DH, Stone MJ, Hauck PR, Rahman SK (1989) Why are secondary metabolites (natural products) biosynthesized? J Nat Prod 52:1189–1208
Willig MR, Kaufman, DM, Stevens RD (2003) Latitudinal gradients of biodiversity: pattern, process, scale, and synthesis. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 34:273–309
Wylie CR, Paul VJ (1988) Feeding preferences of the surgeonfish Zebrasoma flavescens in relation to chemical defenses of tropical algae. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 45:23–32
Young DN, Howard BN, Fenical W (1980) Subcellular localization of brominated secondary metabolites in the red alga Laurencia snyderae. J Phycol 16:182–185
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pereira, R.C., da Gama, B.A.P. (2008). Macroalgal Chemical Defenses and Their Roles in Structuring Tropical Marine Communities. In: Amsler, C.D. (eds) Algal Chemical Ecology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74181-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74181-7_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-74180-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-74181-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)