Abstract
This article will examine the impact that so-called “separation systems”, in particular the French and the U.S. systems, have on the range of the freedom of religion. It is characteristic of such systems that the state keeps separated from the church in all respects, namely refrains from financing churches, using its agents, displaying religious signs in public buildings, etc. Focusing on the right to wear religious garments in public schools, either by students or by teachers, this study tries to analyse similarities and discrepancies in a closely-defined field, which is specific enough for comparative analysis and yet also allows for some further conclusions about the significance of the separation system.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
For details see S. Monsma, Positive Neutrality, 1993.
See, e.g., Matthew 22:21 (“Give therefore to the emperor the things that are the emperor’s, and to God the things that are God’s.”).
See Judgment of the Swiss Federal Court of 12 November 1997, Entscheidungen des Schweizerischen Bundesgerichts/Arrêts du Tribunal Fédéral Suisse (BGE/ATF), vol. 123 I, 296 et seq. (X. contre Conseil d’État du canton de Genève [in French]); European Court of Human Rights, Appl. No. 42393/98 (Dahlab v. Switzerland), Reports 2001-V.
See Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Turkish Republic of 1982 (accordingly Art. 2 of the Constitutions of 1924 and 1961). For details pertaining to the wearing of religious garments in public institutions see European Court of Human Rights, Judgment of 29 June 2004, Appl. No. 4474/98 (Şahin v. Turkey), §§ 27 et seq.
See C. Gusy, Kopftuch — Laizismus — Neutralität, Kritische Vierteljahresschrift (KritV) 2004, 153, at 155 et seq.
See generally J. Cornec, La laïcité, 1961; L. Mejan, La séparation des églises et de l’état, 1959.
See N. Chauvin, Laïcité scolaire et protection des élèves, Revue administrative 1997, 10, at 11: “l’école du diable”, “l’école-sans-dieu”.
See T.J. Gunn, Under God but Not the Scarf: The Founding Myths of Religious Freedom in the United States and Laïcité in France, Journal of Church and State 46 (2004), 7, at 13.
Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Eglises et de l’Etat. See R. Piastra, De la loi de 1905, Recueil Dalloz 181 (2005), 1876.
See Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung No. 38 of 15 February 2005, at 2 („Frankreich würdigt sein Laizitätsgesetz“).
Judgment of 10 May 1912, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’état 1912, 561.
See H. Franzke, Die Laizität als staatskirchenrechtliches Leitprinzip Frankreichs, Die Öffentliche Verwaltung (DÖV) 2004, 383, at 383, referring to Bedouelle/Costa, Les laïcités à la française, 1998, 6, at 9 et seq.
See, e.g., Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’État 1992, 389 (Kherouaa); 1994, 129 (Yilmaz); 1995, 122, at 123 (Aoukili); 1996, 187, at 188 (Ali).
See, e.g., Circulaire of 12 December 1989 of the Minister of State, Minister of National Education on Youth and Sports (socialist L. Jospin), Journal officiel, 15 December 1989, 15577; commented on by C. Durand-Prinborgne, La circulaire Jospin du 12 décembre 1989, RFDA 1990, 10 et seq. After the Parliamentary election of 1993 the new (conservative) minister, F. Bayrou, issued the Circulaire of 20 September 1994.
Judgment of 2 November 1992 — Kherouaa, Kachour, Balo et Kizic, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’état 1992, 389 (= AJDA 1992, 833, annotated by M. Schwartz, id. 788).
Cf. M. Troper, The Problem of the Islamic Veil and the Principle of School Neutrality in France, in: A. Sajó/ Sh. Avineri (eds.), The Law of Religious Identity, 1999, 89, at 96.
Judgment of 14 March 1994 — N. et Z. Yilmaz, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’État 1994, 129.
Judgment of 20 May 1996 — Ministre de l’éducation nationale v. Ali, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’État 1996, 187.
Judgment of 20 May 1996 — Ministre de l’éducation nationale v. Outamghart.
Judgment of 27 November 1996 — Ligue islamique, Chabou, Moussaoui et alt. See Internet (http://perso.wanadoo.fr/alain.complido/CE_Ligue%20islamique.htm; 3 August 2005).
Judgment of 10 March 1995, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’État 1995, 122.
Judgment of 3 May 2000, Recueil des Arrêts du Conseil d’État 2000, 169.
Cf. TA Versailles of 14 April 1992 (Brazza): “Mlle Brazza portait en permanence, dans le collège, un foulard islamique et a refusé de s’en séparer malgré la demande qui lui en avait été faite par le principal du collège; qu’alors qu’elle exerçait une fonction éducative, son attitude était de nature à porter atteinte à la liberté de conscience des élèves dont elle avait la charge.” (RJIF 1993, 77; annotated by Cayla).
Loi no 2004-228 du 15 mars 2004 encadrant en application du principe de laïcité, le port de signes ou de tenues manifestant une appartenance religieuse dans les écoles, collèges et lycées publics, Journal Officiel of 17 March 2004, 5190.
Cf. P. Malaurie, Laïcité, voile islamique et réforme législative, La semaine juridique 2004, 607, at 610.
Journal Officiel of 22 May 2004, 9033. See O. Dord, Laïcité à l’école: l’obscure clarté de la circulaire ‘Fillon’ du 18 mai 2004, L’Actualité Juridique Droit Administratif (AJDA) 60 (2004), 1523 et seq.
The prohibition of “endorsement” precludes government from conveying the message that a particular religious belief is favoured or preferred. See U.S. Supreme Court in County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 U.S. 573 (1989).
See K. Sullivan/ G. Gunther, Constitutional Law, 15th ed., 2004, 1436.
Cf. L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law, 2nd ed., 1988, § 14-3.
See Isaiah 49:23 (“Kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their queens thy nursing mothers.”). According to this, e.g., Queen Elizabeth I was called “Nource of the Church” by the Bishop of Salisbury. See J. Jewel, A Defence of the Apologie of the Churche of Englande, London 1570.
See Library of Congress, Religion and the State Governments (Religion and the Founding of the American Republic), V. State Governments. See www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel05.html; 1 April 2007.
Bill of Rights of the Inhabitants of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts from Account of Frame of Government agreed upon by the Delegates of the People, Boston 1780. See Library of Congress (note 55).
J. Madison, To the Honourable the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia: A Memorial and Remonstrance, June 1785.
T. Jefferson, An Act for Establishing Religious Freedom, January 1786 (July 1786).
Library of Congress (note 55).
See K. Sullivan/ G. Gunther, Constitutional Law (note 52), 1439.
See J. Madison, Memorial and Remonstrance (note 57), particularly Nos. 7, 9.
Cited by Supreme Court Justice Black in Everson v. Board of Education 330 U.S. 1 (1947).
See E. Chemerinsky, Neutrality in Establishment Clause Interpretation: A Potentially Radical Right Turn, in: S. V. Monsma (ed.), Church-State Relations in Crisis: Debating Neutrality, 2002, 211–221 (with further references).
Cf. Supreme Court of Oregon, 723 Pacific Reporter, 2nd Series, 298, at 310 (Cooper v. Eugene School District; see infra III.2.2.2.a) aa).
J. Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States 594, § 1877 (1851). Quoted after Supreme Court of Oregon (note 64), at 310, note 15.
“No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools, [...], shall ever be under the control of any religious sect or denomination [...].” Quoted after U.S. Supreme Court in McCollum v. Board of Education, 333 U.S. 203, at 218.
See Supreme Court of Oregon (note 64), at 308. See also U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in U.S.A. v. Board of Education for the School District of Philadelphia (note 114) 894 respecting the Pennsylvania religious garb bill of 1895.
See H. Bastian, Religious Garb Statutes and Title VII: An Uneasy Coexistence, 80 Georgetown Law Journal 211, note 4 with further references.
See note 62.
See Sullivan/Gunther, Constitutional Law G. Gunther, Constitutional Law, 15th ed., 2004 (note 52), 1434.
403 U.S. 602, 612–613 (1972).
492 U.S. 573, 580-581 (1989) — County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union Greater Pittsburgh Chapter.
465 U.S. 668, 671 (1984). See J. Stronks, The O’Connor Concurring Opinion, in: Monsma (note 63) 127, at 129 et seq.
393 U.S. 503 (1969) — Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.
374 U.S. 398 (1963).
406 U.S. 205 (1972).
475 U.S. 503 (1986). See for similar cases U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Sherwood v. Brown (1980), 619 F.2d 47; U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia in Bitterman v. Secretary of Defence (1986), 553 F.Supp. 719.
See D. Carpenter, Free Exercise and Dress Codes: Toward More Consistent Protection of a Fundamental Right, 63 Indiana Law Journal 601, at 607–608 (1987/1988), approving Justice O’Connor’s “cogent dissent”.
There are few exceptions, See III.2.1. (note 81).
See, however, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board (2001), 240 F.3d 437. This case deals with the freedom of speech.
Judgment of 17 November 1981, 527 F.Supp. 637.
Judgment of 30 June 1982, 683 F.2d 1030.
See Cudahy, Circuit Judge, dissenting; and also Carpenter (note 79, at 609 et seq.) blaming the Menora Court for incompletely applying the strict scrutiny analysis.
Judgment of 17 January 1983, 459 U.S. 1156, Justices Marshall and Blackmun dissenting.
Judgment of 12 October 1995, 67 F.3d 883, 135 A.L.R. Fed. 675.
Judgment of 30 March 1999, 40 F.Supp. 2d 335. My gratitude to S. Mahmud, Esq., Minnesota, who kindly informed me of this case.
See Find Law, Legal News and Commentary, 15 April 2004 (http://news.findlaw.com/; 19 April 2004).
A comprehensive survey on the jurisprudence was published in 1958. See L. Tellier, Wearing of religious garb by public-school teachers (Annotation), 60 ALR2d (American Law Reports, 2nd ed.) 300 et seq.
See Encyclopedia Britannica (www.britannica.com/eb/article-78281/Pennsylvania#613759.hook; 2 May 2007).
See infra III.2.2.2.a) bb) on U.S.A. v. Board of Education for the School District of Philadelphia (1990).
See also Zellers v. Huff, infra (note 97).
See Encyclopedia Britannica (www.britannica.com/eb/article-78845/North-Dakota; 2 May 2007).
See Encarta (http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568489_6____59/Arkansas.html#s59; 18 August 2005).
The Catholic influence traces back to the early 19th century when a great number of Catholics, particularly from Maryland, had immigrated to Kentucky encouraging the establishment of Catholic institutions like the diocesan see at Bardstown in 1808 or the founding of orders like the Sisters of Loretto and the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth. While members of the Roman Catholic Church represent about one sixth of all church members, Kentucky is a predominantly Protestant state where the “revivalist movement” has always played an important role. Cf. T. Matthews (Wake Forest University), Lecture 14: For a Review of the History of Catholicism in the United States, Catholicism in the South, published in the Internet (www.wfu.edu/~matthetl/south/fourteen.html; 5 August 2005).
See Carpenter (note 79), at 619.
This Statute, which was enacted after the judgment in Hysong v. Gallitzin Borough School District (1894) has been delivered (see supra III.2.2.1.), was attacked as unconstitutional but was upheld as reasonable restraint in Commonwealth v. Herr (1910), 229 Pa 132, 78 A 68.
See, e.g., Bastian (note 69), particularly at 213 (“court failed to address the most pressing issue”), 225 (“inartful and superficial”), 226 (inappropriately relying on summary dispositions of the U.S. Supreme Court). Despite all polemics, Bastian convincingly ponders how the garb statute could ever be compelled by the Establishment Clause, if only three other states have such statutes. This would lead to the conclusion that the remaining forty-seven states continuously violate the First Amendment.
McGlothin v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District, Judgment of the U.S. District Court for the District of Mississippi of 30 November 1992, 829 F.Supp. 853.
Brown v. Pena, 441 F.Supp. 1382, at 1385.
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit interpreting Cooper (note 108, at 308) in U.S.A. v. Board of Education for the School District of Philadelphia (note 114), at 888: “In so holding, the Cooper court did not conclude that tolerating religious garb in the classroom would violate the establishment clause, but rather that a rule against such religious dress is permissible to avoid the appearance of sectarian influence, favouritism, or official approval in the public school. The policy choice must be made in the first instance by those with lawmaking or delegated authority to make rules for the schools.” See also id., at 889 (note 5).
U.S. Supreme Court in Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984), at 687, at 1366 (Justice O’Connor concurring).
Cf. U.S. Supreme Court (Justice Brennan) in Edwards, 482 U.S. 578, at 584; 107 S.Ct. 2573, at 2577.
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in U.S.A. v. Board of Education for the School District of Philadelphia (note 114), at 899.
Cf. U.S. Supreme Court (Justice Brennan) in Grand Rapids School District v. Ball, 473 U.S. 373, at 390; 105 S.Ct. 3216, at 3226.
See Bastian (note 69), at 227–228.
See U.S. Supreme Court in Bender v. Williamsport Area School District, 106 S.Ct. 1326, 1337 (1986), Justice Burger dissenting.
Bastian (note 69), at 230.
ECHR, Appl. Nos. 31417/96 and 32377/96 (Lustig-Prean and Beckett v. the United Kingdom), §§ 93 et seq.
Gunn (note 14), at 7. See also R. Teitel, Through the Veil, Darkly: Why France’s Ban on the Wearing of Religious Symbols is Even More Pernicious than it Appears, Findlaw Commentary of 16 February 2004 (http://writ.corporate.findlaw.com/commentary/20040216_teitel.html; visited on 3 June 2005).
See, e.g., F. Bussy, Le débat sur la laïcité et la loi, Recueil Dalloz 180 (2004), 2666, at 2667: “la volonté de lutter contre le communautarisme”; A. Garay/E. Tawil, Tumulte autour de la laïcité, Recueil Dalloz 180 (2004), 225, at 226: “refus du ‘communautarisme.’”
Le Chapelier Act of 1790 prohibited every association (groupes intermédiaires).
Cf. Troper Sh. Avineri (eds.), The Law of Religious Identity, 1999, 89 (note 32), at 101.
Cf. H. Godfrey, School’s bid for headscarf ban widens French divide, “The Observer” of 15 June 2003. I would not follow the author’s presumption that “ [s]chool is to forge future citizens, and civic is secular”, because society other than state institutions must not be secular. See also Troper (note 32), at 92, according to whom “schools were to be a part of the integrating machinery of the state”.
It goes too far to blame the Conseil d’État for not really balancing the principles of laicism and neutrality against individual freedom, but using instead its balancing technique “to camouflage the commitment of its members to this ideology”. See Troper Sh. Avineri (eds.), The Law of Religious Identity, 1999, 89 (note 32), at 101.
See European Court of Human Rights, Judgments of 29 June 2004 and of 10 November 2005, Appl. No. 44774/98 (Şahin v. Turkey), §§ 99 et seq. (with further references). See also Dahlab v. Switzerland (supra note 3).
Cf. Garay/Tawil E. Tawil, Tumulte autour de la laïcité, Recueil Dalloz 180 (2004), 225 (note 139), at 228, criticising that the application of the law depends on the local circumstances, particularly that it does not apply to the province of Alsace-Lorraine. The authors also refer to the Stasi Commission according to which “laicism has not the same shape in Paris as it has in Strasbourg, Cayenne or Mayotte”.
See W. Brugger, On the relationship between structural norms and constitutional rights in church-state relations, in this volume, 21 et seq.
For the convergence theory see Brugger (note 148) with further references.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V., to be exercised by Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, Heidelberg
About this paper
Cite this paper
Richter, D. (2007). Religious Garments in Public Schools in Separation Systems: France and the United States of America. In: Brugger, W., Karayanni, M. (eds) Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law. Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht, vol 190. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-73357-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-73357-7_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-73355-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-73357-7
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawLaw and Criminology (R0)