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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
Throttling a crankcase-compression two-stroke engine reduces the amount of air that is admitted to the crankcase and hence that is available to scavenge the cylinder, but throttling only slightly affects the density and hence the mass of the gas that is trapped in the cylinder when all the ports have been covered. Thus throttling primarily alters the residual fraction (and the amount of incoming fuel in a premixed-charge engine).
- 4.
This need not be an issue if the two-stroke engine is externally scavenged with a blower driven from the crankshaft. Blower-driven scavenging also permits use of a conventional one-piece crankshaft and wet-sump lubrication.
- 5.
Short circuiting can contribute substantially to DI2S engine-out HCs at the heaviest loads where (as discussed momentarily) injection must be advanced substantially [35].
- 6.
By contrast, in premixed-charge four-stroke engines (see chapter 1), the dominant HC emissions mechanism is the storage and release of fuel trapped in combustion-chamber crevices, in particular the piston top-ring-land crevice [30].
- 7.
In automotive applications, in-cylinder NO formation tends to be intrinsically lower in a two-stroke engine because, for a given vehicle power requirement, it operates at roughly half the engine load as its four-stroke counterpart, and NO formation is a strongly non-linear function of temperature and hence of engine load [35].
- 8.
Delivery ratio, a measure of overall engine air flow through a two-stroke engine, is defined as the fraction of a displacement volume of fresh air at ambient conditions that is delivered to the cylinder each cycle.
- 9.
With this mode of data acquisition, photon-correlation LDV is also intrinsically corrected to first order for velocity-sampling bias (more fast particles cross the measurement volume per unit time than slow ones) [62].
- 10.
Even with photon correlation, usable single-burst LDV measurements require at least ˜1 detected photon per Doppler cycle.
- 11.
This also implies a high residual fraction at part load, as mentioned earlier.
- 12.
In-cylinder velocities in two-stroke engines with external scavenging driven by a blower connected to the crankshaft do scale with engine speed.
- 13.
A reference velocity based on, say, delivered air mass per cycle, ambient air density and total port area, i.e., \(\overline{V}_{ref} = \dot{M}_{del}/\rho_{amb}A_{port}\), might appear to be preferable to \(\overline{V}_{P}\)for two-stroke engines. Note, however, that any reference velocity that involves air mass per engine cycle implicitly involves engine speed and is hence proportional to mean piston speed. For the example here, the mass of air delivered per cycle \(\dot{M}_{del}=\rho_{amb} \eta_{del} V_{D}N\), where \(\eta_{del}\) is the delivery ratio, and \(V_{D}\)is the displacement volume. But \(\overline{V}_{D}= A_{bore}S\), where\(A_{bore}\) is the bore area, and hence \(\overline{V}_{ref} = \eta_{del}(A_{bore}/A_{port})\overline{V}_{P}/2\). For the present work, \(A_{port}=\) 19.9 cm2, so \(\overline{V}_{ref}=\) 3.35 m/s.
- 14.
The ideal (discharge coefficient = 1) port-efflux velocity when the transfer ports are first uncovered could be evaluated from the orifice-flow equations and used as a reference velocity that is independent of engine speed. This approach requires conditions in the crankcase at port opening to be assumed, measured or calculated. For this study, the crankcase pressure data yield \(\overline{V}_{port, ideal}\) ≈ 250 m/s. Such a reference velocity might be useful for comparing flows between two-stroke engines, but it seems unlikely to be helpful for comparing in-cylinder velocities between two- and four-stroke engines.
- 15.
The LDV data suggest that jets from opposing ports arrive at the symmetry plane at slightly different times, which could be due to small differences in port heights. A slightly tilted piston would have much the same effect [54].
- 16.
This vidicon system was vastly inferior to the slow-scan, intensified CCD camera used later for the fuel LIF imaging described in §4, and we will therefore not try the reader's patience with its idiosynchrasies. For details, consult [68].
- 17.
We use the terms “intake port” and the more correct “transfer port” synonymously.
- 18.
At least some of the fuel behind the flame front may have undergone thermal decomposition or partial oxidization.
- 19.
Clearly the actual fuel distribution at 40° BTDC extends beyond the front and rear laser-sheet positions used to obtain the series of LIF images for Fig. 2.24.
- 20.
This assumption is supported by fuel LIF in the residual gases, which shows very rapid mixing when the fresh scavenging air reaches the combustion chamber and a nearly uniform distribution of residual fuel in the combustion chamber immediately before the start of injection [80].
- 21.
More recent DI4S research indicates that in cases with large cycle-to-cycle variation in the equivalence ratio near the spark gap, the ensemble-mean equivalence ratio near the gap must be biased somewhat rich (e.g., \(\langle \phi \rangle\) ≈ 1.5) in order to avoid lean misfires and partial burns [100].
- 22.
To first order, the impulsive scavenging flow scales with delivery ratio but not with engine speed in a crankcase-compression-scavenged engine (Sec. 2.3.4.1), whereas the piston-motion-driven squish flow does scale with engine speed.
- 23.
To reduce window fouling and interferences due to combustion luminosity and LIF from combustion-chamber deposits, isooctane fuel was used for most of the LIF imaging.
- 24.
The NO number density and the NO collisional quenching rate both increase linearly with pressure, so the NO LIF intensity for a fixed NO concentration is reasonably independent of pressure, apart from pressure shifts and broadening effects (Sec. 2.5.2.2).
- 25.
Appreciable absorption by hot CO2 as well as by transient hydrocarbon species is implied by our observation that the absorption begins earlier in the engine cycle (before ignition, in fact) and lasts longer when the engine is fueled with gasoline rather than with isooctane. Furthermore, the difference between the mass-averaged cylinder gas temperatures with the two fuels is fairly small (˜50 K in peak temperature).
- 26.
NO LIF excitation from the first vibrationally excited level of the electronic ground state [X2∏(v′′=1)] at 248-nm wavelength suffers much less from these absorption effects, but the LIF signal strengh is then proportional to the temperature-dependent population of the v′′=1 level, which must be taken into account [112, 113].
- 27.
This approach probably overestimates the incidence of misfires and partial burns because the spark can enflame gases from a somewhat larger region than the ~0.4 mm3 volume examined here, and the ˜1 ms spark duration is, moreover, sufficient for fuel-air mixture to reach the spark gap from some distance away, depending on the local velocity field [100, 115]. Furthermore, the relatively long spark duration allows significant stretching of the discharge itself [116].
- 28.
Pumping losses in crankcase-compression-scavenged two-stroke engines increase with load (strictly speaking, with delivered air), while they decrease with load for conventional four-stroke SI engines.
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Acknowledgments
D.T. French collaborated in all the experimental work described in this chapter. We are also grateful to E.D. Klomp for valuable advice on the individual-cycle exhaust mass flow calculations, to P. Meernik and G. Lalonde for advice on installing and calibrating the fast FID, and to P.M. Najt and A.S.P. Solomon for providing the heat-release code as well as tutelage in its use. E.G. Groff and P.E. Reinke, who (together with R.A. Bolton) led the GM two-stroke-engine project at the operational level, provided much helpful information on engine-system and vehicle issues. In addition, the following colleagues generously shared data and insight obtained through their extensive experimental work on two- and four-stroke DI stratified-charge engines: W.C. Albertson, H.E. Evans, R.M Frank, M.R. Galasso, R.M. Otto, K.B. Rober, A.J. Shearer, and L.H. Weinand.
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Fansler, T.D., Drake, M.C. (2008). Flow, Mixture Preparation and Combustion in Direct-Injection Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines. In: Arcoumanis, C., Kamimoto, T. (eds) Flow and Combustion in Reciprocating Engines. Experimental Fluid Mechanics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68901-0_2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68901-0_2
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