Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is essentially the only method for directly measuring neurotransmitter function in vivo in the human brain. While PET has been supplanted by functional magnetic resonance imaging for the purpose of brain mapping, much information about cognitive function can still be gleaned from studies of specific neurotransmitter function. We will introduce the methodology and give examples of studies involving one neurotransmitter (dopamine). Dopamine has been linked to motivation and reward, processes that belong entirely to the realm of what we refer to as thinking.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL (1986) Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 9:357–381
Aston JA, Gunn RN, Worsley KJ, Ma Y, Evans AC, Dagher A (2000) A statistical method for the analysis of positron emission tomography neuroreceptor ligand data. Neuroimage 12:245–256
Barrett SP, Boileau I, Okker J, Pihl RO, Dagher A (2004) The hedonic response to cigarette smoking is proportional to dopamine release in the human striatum as measured by positron emission tomography and [11C]raclopride. Synapse 54:65–71
Bechara A (2005) Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neu-rocognitive perspective. Nat Neurosci 8:1458–1463
Boileau I, Assaad JM, Pihl RO, Benkelfat C, Leyton M, Diksic M, Tremblay RE, Dagher A (2003) Alcohol promotes dopamine release in the human nucleus accumbens. Synapse 49:226–231
Boileau I, Dagher A, Leyton M, Gunn RN, Baker GB, Diksic M, Benkelfat C (2006) Modeling sensitization to stimulants in humans: an [11C]raclopride/positron emission tomography study in healthy men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:1386–1395
Boileau I, Dagher A, Leyton M, Welfeld K, Booij L, Diksic M, Benkelfat C (2007) Conditioned dopamine release in humans: a positron emission tomography [11C]raclopride study with amphetamine. J Neurosci 27:3998–4003
Booij J, Tissingh G, Winogrodzka A, van Royen EA (1999) Imaging of the dopaminergic neurotransmission system using single-photon emission tomography and positron emission tomography in patients with parkinsonism. Eur J Nucl Med 26:171–182
Breiter HC, Gollub RL, Weisskoff RM, Kennedy DN, Makris N, Berke JD, Goodman JM, Kantor HL, Gastfriend DR, Riorden JP, Mathew RT, Rosen BR, Hyman SE (1997) Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion. Neuron 19:591–611
Cloninger CR (1994) Temperament and personality. Curr Opin Neurobiol 4:266–273
de la Fuente-Fernandez R, Ruth TJ, Sossi V, Schulzer M, Calne DB, Stoessl AJ (2001) Expectation and dopamine release: mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease. Science 293:1164–1166
Di Chiara G, Imperato A (1988) Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:5274–5278
Endres CJ, Kolachana BS, Saunders RC, Su T, Weinberger D, Breier A, Eckelman WC, Carson RE (1997) Kinetic modeling of [11C]raclopride: combined PET-microdialysis studies. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17:932–942
Evans AH, Pavese N, Lawrence AD, Tai YF, Appel S, Doder M, Brooks DJ, Lees AJ, Piccini P (2006) Compulsive drug use linked to sensitized ventral striatal dopamine transmission. Ann Neurol 59:852–858
Everitt BJ, Dickinson A, Robbins TW (2001) The neuropsychological basis of addictive behaviour. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 36:129–138
Frey KA, Koeppe RA, Kilbourn MR, Vander Borght TM, Albin RL, Gilman S, Kuhl DE (1996) Presynaptic monoaminergic vesicles in Parkinson’s disease and normal aging. Ann Neurol 40:873–884
Gall FJ (1825) Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacune de ses parties: avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaitre les instincts, les penchans, les talens, ou les dispositions morales et intellectuelles des hommes et des animaux, par la configuration de leur tête. Balliere, Paris
Garnett ES, Nahmias C, Firnau G (1984) Central dopaminergic pathways in hemiparkinsonism examined by positron emission tomography. Can J Neurol Sci 11:174–179
Ginovart N, Farde L, Halldin C, Swahn CG (1997) Effect of reserpine-induced depletion of synaptic dopamine on [11C]raclopride binding to D2-dopamine receptors in the monkey brain. Synapse 25:321–325
Ingvar DH, Risberg J (1967) Increase of regional cerebral blood flow during mental effort in normals and in patients with focal brain disorders. Exp Brain Res 3:195–211
Lamelle M (2000) Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: a critical review. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20:423–451
Laruelle M, Iyer RN, al-Tikriti MS, Zea-Ponce Y, Malison R, Zoghbi SS, Baldwin RM, Kung HF, Charney DS, Hoffer PB, Innis RB, Bradberry CW (1997) Microdialysis and SPECT measurements of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in nonhuman primates. Synapse 25:1–14
Leyton M, Boileau I, Benkelfat C, Diksic M, Baker G, Dagher A (2002) Amphetamine-induced increases in extracellular dopamine, drug wanting, and novelty seeking. A PET/[11C]raclopride study in healthy men. Neuropsychopharmacology 27:1027–1035
Marek K, Jennings D, Scibyl J (2003) Single-photon emission tomography and dopamine transporter imaging in Parkinson’s disease. Adv Neurol 91:183–191
Milner PM (1991) Brain-stimulation reward: a review. Can J Psychol 45:1–36
Morgan D, Grant KA, Gage HD, Mach RH, Kaplan JR, Prioleau O, Nader SH, Buchheimer N, Ehrenkaufer RL, Nader MA (2002) Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration. Nat Neurosci 5:169–174
Mukherjee J, Christian BT, Dunigan KA, Shi B, Narayanan TK, Satter M, Mantil J (2002) Brain imaging of 18F-fallypride in normal volunteers: Blood analysis, distribution, test-retest studies, and preliminary assessment of sensitivity to aging effects on dopamine D-2/D-3 receptors. Synapse 46:170–188
Noble EP (2000) The DRD2 gene in psychiatric and neurological disorders and its phenotypes. Pharmacogenomics 1:309–333
Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, Tank DW (1990) Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:9868–9872
Paulson PE, Robinson TE (1995) Amphetamine-induced time-dependent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in the dorsal and ventral striatum: a microdialysis study in behaving rats. Synapse 19:56–65
Penfield W, Von Santha K, Cipriani A (1939) Cerebral blood flow during induced epileptiform seizures in animals and man. J Neurophysiol 2:257–267
Piazza PV, Deminiere JM, Maccari S, Mormede P, Le Moal M, Simon H (1990) Individual reactivity to novelty predicts probability of amphetamine self-administration. Behav Pharmacol 1:339–345
Piccini P, Brooks DJ, Bjorklund A, Gunn RN, Grasby PM, Rimoldi O, Brundin P, Hagell P, Rehncrona S, Widner H, Lindvall O (1999) Dopamine release from nigral transplants visualized in vivo in a Parkinson’s patient. Nat Neurosci 2:1137–1140
Pruessner JC, Champagne F, Meaney MJ, Dagher A (2004) Dopamine release in response to a psychological stress in humans and its relationship to early life maternal care: a positron emission tomography study using [11C]raclopride. J Neurosci 24:2825–2831
Raichle ME (1987) Circulatory and metabolic correlates of brain function in normal humans. In: Mountcastle VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1, vol 5. The nervous system. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 643–674
Raichle ME (2000) A brief history of human functional brain mapping. In: Toga AW, Mazziotta JC (eds) Brain mapping: the systems. Academic, San Diego, pp 33–77
Schultz W (1998) Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J Neurophysiol 80:1–27
Small DM, Zatorre RJ, Dagher A, Evans AC, Jones-Gotman M (2001) Changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate: From pleasure to aversion. Brain 124:1720–1733
Small DM, Jones-Gotman M, Dagher A (2003) Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers. Neuroimage 19:1709–1715
Smith GS, Dewey SL, Brodie JD, Logan J, Vitkun SA, Simkowitz P, Schloesser R, Alexoff DA, Hurley A, Cooper T, Volkow ND (1997) Serotonergic modulation of dopamine measured with [11C]raclopride and PET in normal human subjects. Am J Psychiatry 154:490–496
Sun W, Ginovart N, Ko F, Seeman P, Kapur S (2003) In vivo evidence for dopamine-mediated internalization of D(2)-receptors after amphetamine: differential findings with [(3)H]raclopride versus [(3)H]spiperone. Mol Pharmacol 63:456–462
Talairach J, Tournoux P (1988) Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain. Thieme, Stuttgart
Wise RA, Rompre PP (1989) Brain dopamine and reward. Annu Rev Psychol 40:191–225
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Dagher, A. (2009). Studying Cognition with Positron Emission Tomography. In: Kraft, E., Gulyás, B., Pöppel, E. (eds) Neural Correlates of Thinking. On Thinking, vol 1. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68044-4_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68044-4_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-68042-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-68044-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)