Abstract
In [91] Susskind outlines the past use of Information Technology (IT), and indicates probable future uses of IT by the legal profession. He indicates that until recently, there was only limited use of IT by legal professionals. Whilst the use of word processing, office, automation, case management tools, client and case databases, electronic data/document interchange tools and fax machines is now standard, only recently have legal firms commenced using knowledge management techniques. The use of applied legal decision support systems is in its infancy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aitken C (1995) Statistics and the Evaluation of Evidence for Forensic Scientists. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK.
Aleven V and Ashley K (1997) Evaluating a Learning Environment for Case-Based Argumentation Skills, Proc 6 th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence & Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30–July 4, ACM Press, New York: 170 –179.
Aleven V (1997) Teaching Case-Based Argumentation through a model and examples, PhD dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, PA.
Alexy R (1989) A Theory of Legal Argumentation, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
Ashley KD (1991) Modeling legal argument: Reasoning with cases and hypotheticals, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ashley KD (1992) Case-based reasoning and its implications for legal expert systems, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1 (2): 113–208.
Bellucci E and Zeleznikow J (1997) Family—Negotiator: an intelligent decision support system for negotiation in Australian Family Law, Proc 4 th Conf Intl Soc for Decision Support Systems, Lausanne: 359–373.
Bellucci E and Zeleznikow J (1998) A comparative study of negotiation decision support systems, Proc 31st Hawaii Intl Conf System Sciences, Maui, Hawaii, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA: 254–262.
Bellucci E and Zeleznikow J (2001) Representations of Decision-Making Support in Negotiation, J Decision Systems, 10 (3–4): 449–479.
Bench-Capon TJ.M (1997) Argument in artificial intelligence and law, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 5: 249–261.
Bench-Capon TJM and Sergot MJ (1988) Towards a rule-based representation of open texture in law, in Walter C (ed) Computer Power and Legal Language, Quorum Books, New York, NY: 39–61.
Bench-Capon TJM and Visser PRS (1997) Ontologies in Legal Information Systems: the Need for Explicit Specifications of Domain Conceptualizations, Proc 6 th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30–July 4, ACM Press, New York: 132–141.
Berman DH (1991) Developer’s choice in the legal domain: the Sisyphean journey with case-based reasoning or down hill with rules, Proc 3rd Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Oxford, UK, June 25–28, ACM Press, New York: 307–309.
Berman DH and Hafner CD (1988) Obstacles to the development of logic-based models of legal reasoning, in Walter C (ed) Computer Power and Legal Reasoning, Quorum Books, New York, NY: 183–214.
Black HC (1990) Black’s Law Dictionary, West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Brams SJ and Kilgour DM (2001) Fallback Bargaining, Group Decision and Negotiation, 10 (4): 287–316.
Brams SJ and Taylor AD (1996) Fair Division, From cake cutting to dispute resolution, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Branting LK (1991) Building explanations from rules and structured cases, Intl J Man Machine Studies, 34 (6): 797–838.
Branting KL (1994) A Computational Model of Ratio Decidendi, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 2: 1–31.
Branting LK (2001) Advisory Systems for Pro Se Litigants, Proc 8 th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, St Louis, Missouri, May 21–25, ACM Press, New York: 139–146.
Breuker J Elhag A, Petkov E and Winkels R (2002) Ontologies for Legal Information Serving and Knowledge Management, Proc Jurix 2002: 15 th Annual Conf Legal Knowledge and Information Systems, London, UK, December 17–18, IOS Press, Amsterdam: 73–82.
Brkic J (1985) Legal Reasoning: Semantic and Logical Analysis, Peter Lang. New York.
Capper P and Susskind R (1988) Latent Damage Adviser — The Expert System, Butterworths, London.
Chung WWC and Pak JJF (1997) Implementing Negotiation Support Systems: Theory and Practice, Proc 13th Annual Hawaii Intl Conf Systems Science (Mini track on Negotiation Support Systems), Hawaii.
Clark E and Hoyle A (2002) On-line Dispute Resolution: Present Realities and Future Prospects, Proc 17th Bileta Conf, Amsterdam, www.bileta.ac.uk/02papers/hoyle.html
Daniels J and Rissland E (1997) Finding legally relevant passages in case opinions, Proc 6 th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30 — July 4, ACM Press, New York: 39–46.
Dick JP (1991) A conceptual, case-relation representation of text for intelligent retrieval, PhD Thesis, University of Toronto, Canada.
Dworkin R (1986) Law’s Empire, Duckworth, London.
Eidelman JA (1993) Software for Negotiations, Law Practice Management, 19 (7): 50–55.
Eisenberg MA (1976) Private Ordering Through Negotiation: Dispute Settlement and Rulemaking, Harvard Law Review, 89: 637–681.
Fayyad U, Piatetsky-Shapiro G and Smyth P (1996) The KDD process for Extracting Useful knowledge from volumes of data, Communications ACM, 39 (11): 27–41.
FeuRosa PV (2000) The Electronic Judge, Proc AISB ‘00 — Symp Artificial Intelligence & Legal Reasoning, Birmingham, UK, April: 33–36.
Fisher R and Ury W (1981) Getting to YES: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In,Haughton Mifflin, Boston, MA.
Frawley WJ, Piatetsky-Shapiro G and Matheus CJ (1991) Knowledge discovery in databases: an overview, Knowledge discovery in databases, AAAI/MIT Press: 1–27.
Fuller L (1958) Positivism and the separation of law and morals–a reply to Professor Hart, Harvard Law Review, 71: 630–672.
Goldring J (1976) Australian Law and International Commercial Arbitration, Columbia J Transnational Law, 15: 216–252.
Gordon TF (1995) The Pleadings Game: An exercise in computational dialectics, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 2 (4): 239–292.
Gruber TR (1995) Towards principles for the Design of Ontologies used for Knowledge Sharing, Intl JHuman-Computer Studies, 43: 907–928.
Greenleaf G, Mowbray A and Van Dijk P (1996) Representing and Using Legal Knowledge in Integrated Decision Support Systems: Datalex Workstations, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 4: 97–142.
Hall MJJ, Hall R and Zeleznikow J (2003) A method for evaluating legal knowledge-based systems based upon the Context Criteria Contingency-guidelines framework, Proc 9th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Edinburgh, Scotland, June 24–28, ACM Press, New York: 274–283.
Hall MJJ, Stranieri A and Zeleznikow J (2002) A Strategy for Evaluating Web-Based Discretionary Decision Support Systems, Proc ADBIS2002 — 6 th East-European Conf Advances in Databases and Information Systems, Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, 8–11 September: 108–120.
Hall MJ.J and Zeleznikow J (2002) The Context, Criteria, Contingency Evaluation Framework for Legal Knowledge-Based Systems, Proc Business Information Systems Conf, April 24–25, Poznan, Poland, ACM Press, New York: 219–227.
Hart HLA (1958) Positivism and the separation of law and morals, Harvard Law Review, 71: 593–629.
Ingleby R (1993) Family Law and Society, Butterworths, Sydney.
Ivkovic S, Yearwood J and Stranieri A (2003) Visualising association rules for feedback within the Legal System, Proc 9th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Edinburgh, Scotland, June 24–28, ACM Press, New York: 214–223.
Johnson P and Mead D (1991) Legislative knowledge base systems for public administration - Some practical issues, Proc 3 rd Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Oxford, UK, June 25–28, ACM Press, New York: 108117.
Jennings, N.R., Faratin, P., Lomuscio, A.R., Parsons, S., Wooldridge, M.J. and Sierra, C. (2001) Automated Negotiation: Prospects, Methods and Challenges, Group Decision and Negotiation, 10 (2): 199–215.
Katsh E and Rifkin J (2001) Online Dispute Resolution: Resolving Conflicts in Cyberspace, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Kersten GE (1997) Support for Group Decisions and Negotiations, in Climaco J (ed) An Overview, in Multiple Criteria Decision Making and Support, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg.
Kolodner J (1993) Case based reasoning, Morgan Kaufiran. San Mateo, CA.
Kolodner JL and Simpson RL (1989) The Mediator: Analysis of an Early Case-Based Problem Solver, Cognitive Science, 13: 507–549.
Loui R, Norman J, Altepeter J, Pinkard D, Craven D, Lindsay J and Foltz M (1997) Progress on Room 5: a Testbed for Public Interactive Semi-Formal Legal Argumentation, Proc 6th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30 — July 4, ACM Press, New York: 207–214.
McCarty LT (1977) Reflections on TAXMAN: an experiment in artificial intelligence and legal reasoning, Harvard Law Review, 90: 837–893.
McCarty LT (1980) The TAXMAN project: Towards a cognitive theory of legal argument, in Niblett B (ed) Computer Science and Law, Cambridge University Press: 23–43.
McCormick DN (1978) Legal Reasoning and Legal Theory, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
McKaay E and Robilliard P (1974) Predicting judicial decisions: the nearest neighbour rule and visual representation of case patterns, Datenverarbeitung im Recht: 302–331.
Matthijssen LJ (1999) Interfacing between lawyers and computers. An architecture for knowledge based interfaces to legal databases, Kluwer Law International, The Netherlands.
Matwin S, Szpakowicz S, Koperczak Z, Kersten GE and Michalowski G (1989) NEGOPLAN: an Expert System Shell for Negotiation Support, IEEE Expert, 4: 50–62.
Meachem L (1999) Judicial Business of the United States Courts, Technical Report, Administrative Office of the United States Courts.
Meldman JA (1977) A structural model for computer-aided legal analysis, Rutgers J Computers and Law, 6: 27–71.
Merkl D and Schweighofer D (1997) The Exploration of Legal Text Corpora with Hierarchical Neural Networks: a Guided Tour in Public International Law, Proc 6th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30 — July 4, ACM Press, New York: 98–105.
Michaelsen RH and Michie D (1983) Expert systems in business, Datamation, 29 (11): 240–246.
Moens MF (2000) Automatic indexing and abstracting of document texts, Kluwer International Series on Information Retrieval 6, Boston, MA.
Moles RN and Dayal S (1992) There is more to life than logic, J Law and Information Science, 3 (2): 188–218.
Newell A and Simon H (1972) Human problem solving, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Oskamp A and Tragter MW (1997) Automated legal decision systems in practice: the mirror of reality, Artificial Intelligence & Law, 5 (4), 291–322.
Pannu AS (1995) Using Genetic Algorithms to Inductively Reason with Cases in the Legal Domain, Proc 5th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, College Park, Maryland, ACM Press, New York: 175–184.
Perelman C and Olbrechts-Tyteca L (1969) The New Rhetoric,translated by Wilkenson J and Weaver P, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN??, originally published in French as Perelman C and Olbrechts-Tycteca L (1958) La Nouvelle Rhétorique: Traité de l’Argumentation. Presses Universitaires de France.
Popp WG and Schlink B (1975) JUDITH, a computer program to advise lawyers in reasoning a case, Jurimetrics, 15 (4): 303–314.
Popple J (1993) SHYSTER: A pragmatic legal expert system, PhD Dissertation, Australian National University.
Pound R (1908) Mechanical Jurisprudence, Colombia Law Review, 8: 605.
Prakken H (1997) Logical Tools for Modelling Legal Argument. A Study in Defeasible Reasoning in Law, Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht.
Quatrevaux E (1996) Increasing legal services delivery capacity through Information Technology, Technical Report LSC/OIG-95–035, Legal Services Corp, oig.Isc.gov/tech/techdown.htm
Reich Y (1995) Measuring the value of knowledge, Intl J Human-Computer Studies, 42 (1): 3–30.
Rissland EL and Friedman MT (1995) Detecting change in legal Concepts, Proc 5th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30 — July 4, ACM Press, New York: 127–136.
Rissland EL and Skalak DB (1991) CABARET: Rule interpretation in a hybrid architecture, Intl JMan-Machine Studies, 34 (6): 839–887.
Rose DE and Belew RK (1991) A connectionist and symbolic hybrid for improving legal research, Intl JMan-Machine Studies, 35 (1): 1–33.
Ross HL (1980) Settled Out of Court, Aldine.
Schreiber JT, Akkermanis AM, Anjewierden AA, de Hoog R, Shadbolt A, Van de Velde W and Wielinga BJ (1999) Knowledge Engineering and Management: The Common Kads Methodology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Schum DA (1994) The Evidential Foundation of Probabilistic Reasoning, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Sergot MJ, Sadri F, Kowalski RA, Kriwaczek F, Hammond P and Cory HT (1986) The British Nationality Act as a logic program, Communications ACM, 29: 370–386.
Shortliffe EH (1976) Computer based medical consultations: MYCIN., Elsevier, New York.
Shpilberg D, Graham LE and Scatz (1986) ExperTAX: an expert system for corporate tax planning, Expert Systems, July.
Smith JC, Gelbart D, MacCrimmon K, Atherton B, McClean J, Shinehoft M, Quintana L, (1995) Artificial Intelligence and Legal Discourse: the Flexlaw Legal Text Management System, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 3: 55–95.
SoftLaw (2000) http://www.softlaw.com.au (accessed June 1, 2001).
Stranieri A and Zeleznikow J (1999) Evaluating legal expert systems, Proc 7th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Oslo, Norway, June 15–18, ACM Press, New York: 18–24.
Stranieri A and Zeleznikow J (2001) Copyright Regulation with Argumentation Agents, Information & Communications Technology, 10 (1): 109–123.
Stranieri A, Zeleznikow J, Gawler M and Lewis B (1999) A hybrid-neural approach to the automation of legal reasoning in the discretionary domain of family law in Australia, Artificial Intelligence and Law 7 (2–3): 153–183.
Stranieri A, Zeleznikow J and Yearwood J (2001) Argumentation structures that integrate dialectical and monoletical reasoning, Knowledge Engineering Review 16 (4): 331–348.
Stranieri A, Zeleznikow J and Turner H (2000) Data mining in law with association rules, Proc LASTED Intl Conf Law and Technology (Lawtech2000), San Francisco, California, October 30–November 1, ACTA Press, Anaheim, CA: 129–134.
Susskind R (2000) Transforming the Law: Essays on Technology, Justice and the Legal Marketplace, Oxford University Press.
Susskind R and Tindall C (1988) VATIA: Ernst and Whinney’s VAT expert system, Proc 4 th Intl Conf Expert Systems, Learned Information.
Swaffield G (1991) An expert system for stamp duty, Proc 3rd Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Oxford, UK, June 25–28, ACM Press, New York: 266–271.
Sycara K (1990) Negotiation planning: an AI approach, European J Operations Research, 46: 216–234.
Sycara K (1998) Multiagent Systems, AI Magazine, 19 (2): 79–92.
Toulmin S (1958) The Uses of Arguments, Cambridge University Press.
Turtle H (1995) Text Retrieval in the Legal World, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 3: 5–54.
Twining WL and Miers D (1982) How To Do Things With Rules (2 nd ed), Weidenfield and Nicolson, London.
Tyree AL, Grenleaf G and Mowbray A (1989) Generating Legal Arguments. Knowledge Based Systems, 2 (1): 46–51.
van Engers TM and Glasee E (2001) Facilitating the Legislation Process using a Shared Conceptual Model, IEEE Intelligent Systems: 50–57.
van Engers TM and Kodelaar P (1998) POWER: Program for an Ontology-based working environment for rules and regulations, Proc ISMICK ‘89.
van Kralingen RW (1995) Frame based Conceptual Models of Statute Law, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Valente A (1995) Legal Knowledge Engineering; A modeling approach, IOS Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Visser PRS (1995) Knowledge Specification for Multiple Legal Tasks: a Case Study of the Interaction Problem in the Legal Domain,Kluwer Computer/Law Series, 17.
Voermans W and Verharen E (1993) A Semi Intelligent Drafting Support System, Proc 6th Intl Conf Legal Knowledge Based Systems, Koniklijke Vermand, Tilburg, the Netherlands, November 18–19: 81–94.
Vossos G, Zeleznikow J, Moore A and Hunter D (1993) The Credit Act Advisory System (CAAS): Conversion from an expert system prototype to a C++ commercial system, Proc 4` h Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, June 15–18, ACM Press, New York: 180–183.
Waismann F (1951) Verifiability, in Flew A (ed) Logic and Language, Blackwell, Cambridge, UK.
Walker RF, Oskamp A, Schrickx JA, Opdorp GJ, and van den Berg PH (1991) PROLEXS: Creating law and order in a heterogeneous domain, Intl J Man Machine Studies, 35 (1): 35–68.
Walton D (1998) The New Dialectic, Pennsylvania State University Press, PA.
Walton D (2002) Legal Argumentation and Evidence, Pennsylvania State University Press, PA.
Walton DN and Krabbe ECW (1995) Commitment in Dialogue: Basic Concepts of Interpersonal Reasoning, SUNY Series in Logic and Language, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY.
Waterman DA and Peterson M (1984) Evaluating civil claims: an expert systems approach, Expert Systems, 1.
Waterman DA, Paul J and Peterson M (1986) Expert systems for legal decision making, Expert Systems, 3 (4): 212–226.
Wigmore JH (1913) The Principles of Judicial Proof, Little Brown & Co, Boston, MA.
Wilkenfeld, J, Kraus S, Holley KM and Harris MA (1995) GENIE: A decision support system for crisis negotiations, Decision Support Systems, 14: 369–391.
Wilkins D and Pillaipakkamnatt K (1997) The Effectiveness of Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting Time to Case Disposition, Proc 6th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, Melbourne, Australia, June 30 — July 4, ACM Press, New York: 39–46.
Williams GR (1983) Legal Negotiation and Settlement, West Publishing Co, St Paul, Minnesota.
Zeleznikow J (1991) Building intelligent legal tools–The IKBALS project, J Law and Information Science, 2 (2): 165–184.
Zeleznikow J (2002) Using Web-based Legal Decision Support Systems to Improve Access to Justice, Information and Communications Technology Law, 11(1): 15–33.
Zeleznikow J (2002) Risk, Negotiation and Argumentation — a decision support system based approach, Law, Probability and Risk, 1: 37–48.
Zeleznikow J (2003) An Australian Perspective on Rsearch and Development required for the construction of applied Legal Decision Support Systems, Artificial Intelligence and Law, 10: 237–260.
Zeleznikow J (2003) The Split-Up project: Induction, context and knowledge discovery in law, Law, Probability and Risk (in press).
Zeleznikow J and Hunter D (1994) Building Intelligent Legal Information Systems: Knowledge Representation and Reasoning in Law, Kluwer Computer/Law Series, 13.
Zeleznikow J, Hunter D and Stranieri A (1997) Using cases to build intelligent decision support systems, Proc IFIP Working Group 2.6 — Database Applications Semantics, Stone Mountain, GA, May 30 - June 2, 1995, (eds) Meersman R and Mark L Chapman & Hall, London, UK: 443460.
Zeleznikow J and Stranieri A (1995) The Split-Up system: Integrating neural networks and rule based reasoning in the legal domain, Proc 5 th Intl Conf Artificial Intelligence and Law, College Park, Maryland, May 21–25, ACM Press, New York: 185–194.
Zeleznikow J and Stranieri A (1998) Split Up: The use of an argument based knowledge representation to meet expectations of different users for discretionary decision making, Proc IAAI’98 — 10 th Annual Conf Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence, Madison, Wisconsin, July 27–30, AAAI/MIT Press, Cambridge, MA: 1146–1151.
Zeleznikow J, Meersman R, Hunter D and van Helvoort E (1995) Computer tools for aiding legal negotiation, Proc ACIS95 — 6th Australasian Conf Information Systems, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, WA, September 26–28: 231–251.
Zeleznikow J, Vossos G and Hunter D (1994) The IKBALS project: Multimodal reasoning in legal knowledge based systems, Artificial Intelligence and Law 2 (3): 169–203.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zeleznikow, J. (2004). Building Intelligent Legal Decision Support Systems: Past Practice and Future Challenges. In: Fulcher, J., Jain, L.C. (eds) Applied Intelligent Systems. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, vol 153. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-39972-8_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-39972-8_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-05942-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-39972-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive