Skip to main content

Part of the book series: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry ((HEC1,volume 1 / 1B))

Abstract

Carbon is a key element of life and the existence of the carbon cycle is the conditio sine qua non for every biological activity on this planet. The exceptional position of carbon among other elements is based on the ability of its atoms to link manifoldly together to form a huge variety of compounds which is essential to the development of living things.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Ajtay, G.L., Ketner, P., Duvigneaud, P.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P., Eds.) SCOPE Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 5

    Google Scholar 

  2. Baer, F.E.: Chemistry of the Soil. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York 1955

    Google Scholar 

  3. Baes, CF. et al.: ORNL-5194, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1976, pp. 1–72

    Google Scholar 

  4. Balch, W.E. et al.: Microbiol Rev. 43, 260 (1979)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Barnes, R.O., Goldberg, E.D.: Geology 4, 297 (1976)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Bathurst, R.G.: Developments in Sedimentology. Elsevier, Amsterdam 1971, Vol. 12

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bazilevich, N.I., Roding, L.Y., Rozov, N.N.: Sov. Geogr. Rev. Transi. 12, 293 (1971)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bischof, W.: Tellus 29, 435 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Björkström, A.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P., Eds.) SCOPE Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 15

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bohn, H.L.: Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 40, 468 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Bolin, B.: Sci. Am. 223, 125, Sept. 1970

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bolin, B.: Science 196, 613 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Botkin, D.B., Janak, J.F., Wallis, J.R.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.) 24th Brookhaven Symp. Biology, USAEC. Conf.-720510, 1973, pp. 328–344

    Google Scholar 

  14. Brewer, P.G.: Oceanus 21 (No. 4), 13 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  15. Broecker, W.S., Takahashi, T.: J. Geophys Res. 71, 1575 (1966)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Broecker, W.S.: Science 168, 1537 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  17. Broecker, W.S., Li, Y.-H., Peng, T.H.: in Impingement of Man on the Oceans (Hood, D.W., Ed.). Wiley-Interscience, New York 1971, pp. 287–324

    Google Scholar 

  18. Budyko, M.I., Vinnikov, K.Ya.: in Global Chemical Cycles and their Alterations by Man (Stumm, W., Ed.). Dahlem Konferenzen, Berlin 1977, pp. 189–205

    Google Scholar 

  19. Butlerov, A.: Liebigs Ann. Chem. 120, 296 (1861)

    Google Scholar 

  20. Callender, G.S.: Quart. J. Roy. Meterol. Soc. 64, 223 (1938)

    Google Scholar 

  21. Calvin, M.: Chemical Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1969

    Google Scholar 

  22. Davis, J.A.: in Contaminants and Sediments (Baker, R.A. Ed.). Ann Arbor Sci. Publishers Ann Arbor, 1980, Vol.2, pp.279–304

    Google Scholar 

  23. Davis, J.B., Yarbrough, H.F.: Chem. Geol. 1, 137 (1966)

    Google Scholar 

  24. Degens, E.T., Mopper, K.: in Chemical Oceanography, 2 nd ed. (Riley, J.P., Chester, R. Eds.). Academic Press, London 1976, Vol.6, Chap.31

    Google Scholar 

  25. Degens, E.T.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P., Eds.). SCOPE Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 2

    Google Scholar 

  26. de Vooys, C.G.N.: ibid. Chap. 10

    Google Scholar 

  27. Duplessy, J.C., Lambert, G.: La Recherche 9, 696 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Duvigneaud, P., Bowen, H.J.M.: cited in [1]

    Google Scholar 

  29. Emerson, S.: Limnol. Oceanogr. 20, 743 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Eriksson, E.: J. Geophys. Res. 68, 3871 (1963)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. FitzPatrick, E.A.: An Introduction to Soil Science. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974

    Google Scholar 

  32. Fogg, G.E.: in Chemical Oceanography 2nd ed. (Riley, J.P., Skirrow, G., Eds.). Academic Press, London 1975, Vol.2, Chap. 14

    Google Scholar 

  33. Fonselius, S.: Ambio Spec. Rep. 1, 29 (1972)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Freyer, H.-D.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P. Eds.). SCOPE Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Garreis, R.M., Mackenzie, F.T., Hunt, C.: Chemical Cycles and the Global Environment. William Kaufmann, Los Altos, California 1973, Chap. 6

    Google Scholar 

  36. Garreis, R.M., Perry, E.A.: in The Sea (Goldberg, E.D. Ed.). Johny Wiley, New York 1974, Vol. 5, Chap. 9

    Google Scholar 

  37. Getoff, N., Schenk, G.O.: Radiation Res. 31, 486 (1967)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Gieskes, J.M.: in The Sea (Goldberg, E.D. Ed.). Wiley-Interscience, New York 1974, Vol.5, Chap. 3

    Google Scholar 

  39. Goguel, J.: C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 287, Série D-333 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Goudriaan, J., Ajtay, G.L.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P. Eds.) SCOPE Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 8

    Google Scholar 

  41. Hammann, R., Ottow, J.C.G.: Z. Pflanzenern. Bodenk 137, 108 (1974)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Higgins, I.J.: Microbial Biochem. 21, 300 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  43. Hodgson, G.W., Ponnamperuma, C.: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (US), 59, 22 (1968)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Holland, H.D.: The Chemistry of the Atmosphere and Oceans. John Wiley, New York 1978

    Google Scholar 

  45. Honjo, S.: in The Fate of Fossil Fuel CO2 in the Oceans (Andersen, N.R., Malahoff, A. Eds.). Plenum Press, New York 1977, pp. 269–294

    Google Scholar 

  46. Hutchinson, G.E.: A Treatise on Limnology. J. Wiley, New York 1957, Vol. 1

    Google Scholar 

  47. Ingle, S.E.: Marine Chem. 3, 301 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ishimoto, M., Egami, F.: Proc. First Internat. Symp. Origin of Life on Earth (Clark, F., Synge, R.L.M. Eds.). Pergamon Press, New York 1957, pp. 555–561

    Google Scholar 

  49. Jannasch, H.W., Wirsen, CO., Taylor, C.D.: Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 32, 360 (1976)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Keeling, C.D.: J. Geophys. Res. 73, 4543 (1968)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Keeling, C.D.: in Chemistry of the Lower Atmosphere (Rasool, S.I. Ed.). Plenum Press, New York 1973, Chap. 6

    Google Scholar 

  52. Keeling, C.D. et al.: Tellus 28, 538 (1976)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Keeling, C.D. et al.: Tellus 28, 552 (1976)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Keeling, C.D., Bacastow, P.B.: in Energy and Climate, Stud. Geophys., 72–95, US-Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C 1977

    Google Scholar 

  55. Kelts, K., Hsü, K.J.: in Lakes-Chemistry, Geology, Physics (Lerman, A. Ed.). Springer, New York 1978, Chap. 9

    Google Scholar 

  56. Kenyon, D.H., Steinmann, G.: Biochemical Predestination. McGraw-Hill, New York 1969

    Google Scholar 

  57. Kester, D.R., Pytkowicz, R.M.: in Global Chemical Cycles and their Alterations by Man (Stumm, W. Ed.). Dahlem Konferenzen, Berlin 1977, pp. 99–120

    Google Scholar 

  58. Konopka, A., Brock, T.D.: Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 36, 572 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kroopnick, P., Craig, H.: Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 32, 375 (1976)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kusnezow, S.I.: The Microflora of Lakes and its Geochemical Activity. Academy Nauk, Leningrad 1970 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  61. Lemmon, R.M.: Chem. Rev. 70, 95 (1970)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Lerman, A.: in Global Chemical Cycles and their Alterations by Man (Stumm, W., Ed.). Dahlem Konferenzen, Berlin 1977, pp. 275–289

    Google Scholar 

  63. Li, Y.-H., Takahashi, T., Broecker, W.S.: J. Geophys. Res. 74, 5507 (1969)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Likens, G.E. et al.: Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. Springer, New York 1977

    Google Scholar 

  65. Machta, L.: in The Changing Chemistry of the Oceans, Nobel Symp. 20 (Dryssen, D., Jagner, D. Eds.) Almquist and Wiksell, Stockholm 1972, pp. 121–145

    Google Scholar 

  66. Manabe, S., Wetherald, R.T.: J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 3 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Martens, CS., Berner, R.A.: Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 10 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Martin, D.F.: Marine Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York 1970, Vol.2, Chap.8

    Google Scholar 

  69. Mathur, S.P., Paul, E.A.: Nature 212, 646 (1966)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Mclnerney, M.J., Bryant, M.P., Pfennig, N.: Arch. Microbiol. 122, 129 (1979)

    Google Scholar 

  71. Megard, R.O.: 1968, cited by Kelts and Hsü [55]

    Google Scholar 

  72. Menzel, D.W.: in The Sea (Goldberg, E.D. Ed.) John Wiley, New York 1974, Vol.5, Chap. 18

    Google Scholar 

  73. Miller, S.L.: Science 117, 528 (1953)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Miller, S.L., Urey, H.C.: Science 130, 245 (1959)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Mopper, K., Degens, E.T.: in The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ket-ner, P. Eds.) Scope Rep. 13. John Wiley, Chichester 1979, Chap. 11

    Google Scholar 

  76. Mueller, G.: in Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York 1971, Vol.2, p. 251

    Google Scholar 

  77. Nissenbaum, A., Kaplan, LR.: Limnol. Oceanogr. 17, 570 (1972)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Ohle, W.: Arch. Hydrobiol. 46, 153 (1952)

    Google Scholar 

  79. Oparin, A.I.: Proiskhozhenie zhizni. Izd. Moskovskii Rabochii, Moscow 1924

    Google Scholar 

  80. Ottow, J.C.G.: Naturwissenschaften 65, 413 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Park, K.: Science 162, 357 (1968)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Parsons, T.R.: in Chemical Oceanography 2nd ed. (Riley, J.P., Skirrow, G. Eds.). Academic Press, London 1975, Vol.2, Chap. 13

    Google Scholar 

  83. Peng, T.-H. et al.: in Fate of Fossil Fuel CO2 in the Oceans (Andersen, N.R., Malahoff, A. Eds.). Plenum Press, New York 1977, pp. 355–373

    Google Scholar 

  84. Pfennig, N.: Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 21, 285 (1967)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Pfennig, N., Trüper, H.G.: in Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology 8th ed. (Buchanan, R.E., Gibbons, N.E. Eds.). Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore 1974, Part 1

    Google Scholar 

  86. Piatt, T., Subba, Rao, D.V.: Fisheries Res. Board Canada, Techn. Rep. No. 370 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  87. Ponnamperuma, C et al.: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei (US) 49, 131 (1963)

    Google Scholar 

  88. Ponnamperuma, C., Woeller, F.H.: Curr. Modern Biol. 1, 156 (1967)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Reeburgh, W.S.: Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 28, 337 (1976f)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Reichle, D.E. et al.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.) 24th Brookhaven Symp. Biology. USAEC Conf.-720510, pp. 345–365 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  91. Reid, C., Orgel, L.E., Ponnamperuma, C.: Nature 216, 936 (1967)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Reiners, W.A.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.) 24th Brook-haven Symp. Biology. USAEC Conf.-720510, pp. 345–365 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  93. Reiners, W.A.: ibid. pp. 368–382

    Google Scholar 

  94. Richards, F.A., et al.: Limnol Oceanogr. 10, (Suppl.), R 185 (1965)

    Google Scholar 

  95. Riley, G.A.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.) 24th Brookhaven Symp. Biology: USAEC Conf.-720510, pp. 204–220 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  96. Ring, D. et al.: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (US) 69, 765 (1972)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Rosswall, T.: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulphur-Global-Cycles (Svensson, B.H., Söderlund, R. Eds.). SCOPE Rep. 7, Ecol. Bull 22, 157 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  98. Rotty, R.M.: 1977, cited by Freyer [34]

    Google Scholar 

  99. Schlesinger, W.H.: Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8, 51 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Schneider, S.: J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 2060 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Schnitzer, M., Khan, S.U.: Humic Substances in the Environment. Marcel Dekker, New York 1972

    Google Scholar 

  102. SCOPE-Rep. No. 13, The Global Carbon Cycle (Bolin, B., Degens, E.T., Kempe, S., Ketner, P. Eds.). John Wiley, Chichester 1979

    Google Scholar 

  103. Sekihara, K.: in Environmental Chemistry (Bockris, J. O’M. Ed.). Plenum Press, New York 1977, Chap. 10

    Google Scholar 

  104. Siegenthaler, U., Oeschger, H.: Science 199, 388 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Skerman, V.B.D., Mac Rae, I.C.: Can. J. Microbiol. 3, 505 (1957)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Sorensen, J.: Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35, 301 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Sorokin, Y.I.: Arch. Hydrobiol. 66, 391 (1970)

    Google Scholar 

  108. Strong, A.E., Eadie, B.J.: Limnol. Oceanogr. 23, Sil (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  109. Stumm, W., Morgan, J.J.: Aquatic Chemistry. John Wiley, New York 1970

    Google Scholar 

  110. Stumm, W. (Ed.): Global Chemical Cycles and their Alterations by Man. Dahlem Konferenzen, Berlin 1977

    Google Scholar 

  111. Sybesma, Chr.: in Photobiology of Microorganisms, (Halldal, P. Ed.). Wiley-Interscience, London 1970, Chap. 3

    Google Scholar 

  112. Takahashi, H., Tanaguchi, S., Egami, F.: in Comparative Biochemistry (Florkin, M., Mason, H.D. Eds.) Academic Press, New York 1963, pp. 91–202

    Google Scholar 

  113. Thauer, R.K., Jungermann, K., Decker, K.: Bacteriol. Rev. 41, 100 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Trimble, R.B., Ehrlich, H.L.: Bact. Proc. 1968, 135

    Google Scholar 

  115. Turner, J.S., Brittain, E.G.: Biol. Rev. 37, 130 (1962)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Urey, H.C.: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (US) 38, 351 (1952)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Vallentyne, J.R.: in Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York 1971, Vol.2, p.251

    Google Scholar 

  118. Wetzel, R.G.: Verh. Internat. Verein Limnol. 16, 321 (1966)

    Google Scholar 

  119. Wetzel, R.G., Allen, H.L.: in Productivity Problems of Freshwaters (Kajak, Z., Hillbricht-Ilkow-ska, A. Eds.) PNW Polish Sci. Publishers. Warsaw, 1970, pp. 333–347

    Google Scholar 

  120. Wetzel, R.G., Rich, P.H.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.). 24th Brookhaven. Biology USAEC. Conf.-720510, pp. 241–263 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  121. Wetzel, R.G., Otsuki, A.: Arch. Hydrobiol. 73, 15 (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  122. White, W.S.: Role of Calcium Carbonate in Lake Metabolism. Ph. D. Thesis, Michigan State Univ. 1974

    Google Scholar 

  123. Whittaker, R.H., Likens, G.E.: in Carbon and the Biosphere (Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. Eds.). 24th Brookhaven Symp. Biology, USAEC Conf-720510, pp. 281–302 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  124. Whittaker, R.H.: Communities and Ecosystems, 2nd ed. Macmillan, Toronto 1975

    Google Scholar 

  125. Whittaker, R.H., Likens, G.E.: in Primary Productivity of the Biosphere (Lieth, H., Whittaker, R.H. Eds.). Springer, New York 1975, pp. 281–302

    Google Scholar 

  126. Withrow, R.B.: in Photoperiodism phenomena in plants and Animals. Publ. Am. Ass. Advmt. Sci. 55, 439 (1959)

    Google Scholar 

  127. Williams, P.M. Oeschger, H., Kinney, P.: Nature 224, 256 (1969)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Williams, P.J. le B.: Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed. (Riley, J.P., Skirrow, G. Eds.). Academic Press, London 1975, Vol.2, Chap. 12

    Google Scholar 

  129. Woese, CR.: J. Mol. Evol. 13, 95 (1979)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Wolman, Y., Haverland, W.J., Miller, S.L.: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (US) 69, 809 (1972)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Woodwell, G.M., Pecan, E.V. (Eds.): Carbon and the Biosphere, 24th Brookhaven Symp. Biology USAEC Conf.-720510 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  132. Woodwell, G.M., Rich, P.H., Hall, C.A.S.: ibid. pp. 221–240

    Google Scholar 

  133. Woodwell, G.M., Houghton, R.A.: in Global Chemical Cycles and their Alterations by Man (Stumm, W. Ed.). Dahlem Konferenzen, Berlin 1977, pp. 61–72

    Google Scholar 

  134. Woodwell, G.M.: Sci. Am. 238, 34 (Jan.) (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Woodwell, G.M. et al.: Science 199, 141 (1978)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Zafiriou, O.C.: Marine Chem. 5, 497 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Zehnder, A.J.B.: in Water Pollution Microbiology (Mitchell, R. Ed.). John Wiley, New York 1978, Vol. 2, Chap. 13

    Google Scholar 

  138. Zehnder, A.J.B., Brock, T.D.: J. Bacterid. 137, 420 (1979)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Zelitch, I.: Photosynthesis, Photoreration and Plant Productivity. Academic Press, New York 1971

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1982 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Zehnder, A.J.B. (1982). The Carbon Cycle. In: The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol 1 / 1B. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-38597-4_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-38597-4_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-15324-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-38597-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics