Automating, 1980s: Arthur Andersen and the Operational Strategy

Weiss, Antonio E.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99876-3_4

Antonio E. Weiss²

382 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter concerns itself with the divergence of many accounting firms into consultancy services (giving rise to the “accountancy generation”). The chapter explores how the consultancy industry began to change in nature with greater numbers of firms offering long-term IT support to state departments seeking public sector efficiencies, as the “data processing generation” of consultancies entered the state market in the 1970s and 1980s. The second case study of this book rests here, covering Arthur Andersen’s work on the “Operational Strategy.” Here, the American firm’s work supporting the Department of Health and Social Security’s computerisation of social security benefits throughout the 1980s is addressed. The case study highlights how influential the historically under-researched cadre of executive and clerical civil servants were in driving the Operational Strategy. Particular attention is placed on the political rationale for the Operational Strategy, and how the automation of the machinery of government was used to quell public unrest.

Arthur Andersen’s consulting wing split (though remained part of the same legal entity as Arthur Andersen) in 1989 and became Andersen Consulting. For the purposes of clarity the consultancy is referred to as Arthur Andersen throughout, unless quoting a source. In a similar manner, in 1988 the Department of Health and Social Security split and became the Department of Social Security and Department of Health. In this instance, the appropriate departmental name is used in the context of the period being discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (USA)

eBook: USD 84.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Softcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Hardcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

1.
House of Lords debate, Dec 19, 1988, vol 502 cc1125–6.
2.
Cited in Beatrix Campbell, Wigan Pier Revisited: Poverty and Politics in the Eighties (London: Virago, 1984), e-book.
3.
Keith Butterfield, “Social Security Local Offices”, Management in Government (London: HMSO, 1982) vols 37–8, 96.
4.
New Society 62 (New Society Limited, 1982): 168.
5.
Campbell, Wigan Pier Revisited quoting from a 1977 Daily Mail article.
6.
Social Security Operational Strategy: A brief guide (London: DHSS, 1982), 2–3.
7.
Geoffrey Otton, “Managing social security: Government as big business”, International Social Security Review 27, no. 2 (1984): 161–166.
8.
Ann Widdecombe, House of Commons debate, April 15, 1991, vol 189 c9.
9.
House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, “Twenty-fourth Report: Department of Social Security Operational Strategy” (London, 1989), v; “Government IT: What happened to our £25bn?,” Computer Weekly, October 29, 2006.
10.
Ibid.
11.
“Life still tough for the IT consultants,” Financial Times, October 21, 1992; author interview with Mark Otway, Managing Partner of Operational Strategy, Andersen Consulting, 1982–2000, March 18, 2014.
12.
Keith Burgess, interview with author in Sloane Square, London, March 9, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
13.
Financial Times, January 29, 1971.
14.
Calculated by author from company returns in MCA: boxes 22, 23, and 24.
15.
Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003), 32; McKenna, World’s Newest Profession, 21.
16.
Edgar Jones, True and Fair: A History of Price Waterhouse (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1995), 294.
17.
Matthews et al., Priesthood of Industry, 104–05.
18.
Ibid.
19.
See Jones, True and Fair, 292; Mark Stevens, The Big Eight (New York: Macmillan, 1981), 108.
20.
Jones, True and Fair, 293. Fifty-five per cent of Price Waterhouse’s “management consultancy” staff were qualified accountants in 1975; see TNA: T374/97, “Career Summaries for the Consultants We Plan to Assign to the Project.” Arthur Andersen to HM Treasury, April 9 1976, for a selection of biographies of Arthur Andersen’s consultants.
21.
Bank of England archives (hereafter BoE): E4/67. James Selwyn paper, “Management Consultants in the Bank,” 1968.
22.
MCA Annual Report, 1965; Kipping and Saint-Martin discuss Arthur Andersen’s admission in “Between Regulation, Promotion and Consumption”, 454.
23.
MCA Annual Report, 1965; MCA Annual Report, 1966.
24.
Vic Forrington, correspondence with author.
25.
Ibid.
26.
“Another difficult time expected,” Financial Times, January 10, 1977.
27.
Calculated by author from MCA: box 23.
28.
“Where the consultants are going,” Financial Times, June 9, 1972.
29.
“Another difficult time expected,” Financial Times, January 10, 1977.
30.
Ibid.
31.
Jones, True and Fair, 294.
32.
Ibid., 292.
33.
Quoted in Leonard Spacek, The Growth of Arthur Andersen & Co., 1928–1973: An Oral History (New York: Garland, 1985), 162–63.
34.
Jones, True and Fair, 296–316.
35.
This point is also raised in Saint-Martin, Building the New Managerialist State, 49.
36.
Maurice W. Kirby, Operational Research in War and Peace: The British Experience from the 1930s 1970s (London: Imperial College Press, 2003), 3.
37.
For more on this, see Kirby, Operational Research.
38.
Keith Burgess, interview with author, March 9, 2011. For a biography of David Kaye, see Appendix 1: Key characters by chapter.
39.
Keith Burgess, interview with author, March 9, 2011.
40.
Ibid.
41.
Colin Thain and Maurice Wright, “Planning and controlling public expenditure in the UK, Part I: The Treasury’s Public Expenditure Survey,” Public Administration, Vol 2 (1992), 6.
42.
Maurice Wright, “Public Expenditure in Britain: The Crisis of Control,” Public Administration, Vol 55, No 2 (1977), 143–150.
43.
Thain and Wright, “Planning and controlling,” 1.
44.
David Kaye, interview with author at Landmark Hotel, Marylebone, London, November 11, 2011; the historian Rodney Lowe also ascribes the conception of the FIS to Turner. See Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service, 470, endnote 109.
45.
Wright, “Public Expenditure in Britain,” 148.
46.
TNA: T 374/97, “FIS: Proposal for Arthur Andersen and Company for remaining stages.” F. E. R. Butler memo, April 8, 1976.
47.
David Kaye, interview with author at Royal London Homeopathic Hospital on February 14, 2013.
48.
Kirby, Operational Research in War and Peace, 383.
49.
Arjand A. Assad and Saul I. Gass, Profiles in Operations Research: Pioneers and Innovators (New York: Springer, 2011), 485–6.
50.
Kirby, Operational Research in War and Peace, 346.
51.
Ibid., 384.
52.
Tisdall, Agents of Change, 50.
53.
Kipping, “Trapped in their wave”, 32.
54.
“Idealism was not enough”, Financial Times, June 25, 1984.
55.
Kipping, “Alternative Pathways of Change in Professional Service Firms: The Case of Management Consulting,” 792.
56.
Churchill Archives Centre: MISC 84.1. Sir John Herbecq papers, “Memoir,” 224. Quoted in Lowe, Civil Service, 514 n.124.
57.
Richard Wilson, interview with author at C. Hoare & Co., March 6, 2014. See Appendix 1 for biography.
58.
TNA: HN 1/22. “Computers in central government – report.” November 7, 1969.
59.
Quoted in Helen Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government: Britain & America (London: Routledge, 1999), 25.
60.
Quoted in ibid., 34.
61.
Quoted in Jon Agar, The Government Machine: A Revolutionary History of the Computer (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003), 331.
62.
Brech et al., Lyndall Urwick, 213.
63.
For computer installation figures see Agar, The Government Machine, 293; for accounts of these official visits see ibid., 315; Agar’s describes this “retreat” in ibid., 339.
64.
Agar, The Government Machine, 6.
65.
Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government: Britain & America, 2.
66.
Cited in ibid., 21.
67.
Atkinson quote cited in TNA: HN 1/22: “Computers in Central Government – Ten Years Ahead; some observations on the report.” F. Clive de Paula, September 1969, 1–8. See Appendix 1 for biography.
68.
Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service, 340–46.
69.
TNA: HN 1/22. “Computers in Central Government – Ten Years Ahead.” September 1968, 7–8.
70.
Ibid.
71.
Ibid., 6–8.
72.
Civil Service Department, Central Computer Agency, Code of Practice for the use of Computer Consultants and Software Houses by Government Departments. (London: HMSO, 1973).
73.
Ibid., 2.
74.
Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service, 227; TNA: T 374/97, “FIS: Proposal for Arthur Andersen and Company for remaining stages.” F. E. R. Butler memo, April 8, 1976, 1–3.
75.
Ibid.; TNA: T 374/97, “Career summaries for the consultants we plan to assign to the project.” Arthur Andersen & Co. memo to M. P. Brown, April 9, 1976.
76.
“Whitehall’s blandishments win war of the words,” The Guardian, December 24, 1983.
77.
“High-tech benefits cost DSS £1 billion more,” The Guardian, July 6, 1989.
78.
“Computing that doesn’t compute,” The Guardian, December 22, 1999.
79.
“New computers are a passport to chaos,” The Times, July 3, 1999; “Great computer cock-ups,” The Independent, January 24, 1997.
80.
“Government IT: What happened to our £25bn?,” Computer Weekly, October 29, 2006.
81.
For a consultant’s view on the early years of the Thatcher administration’s drive to modernise government see Colin Sharman, Partner at Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., “Value for money auditing in the Public Sector”, Dutch-British Workshop, Amsterdam, September 20–21, 1986.
82.
NAO, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General: Administrative Computing in Government Departments (London: HMSO, 1984), 5.
83.
Public Accounts Committee Report 1988/9, vii.
84.
National Audit Office Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General, Department of Social Security: Operational Strategy (London: House of Commons, 1989), 5–6.
85.
Ibid., 2.
86.
Ibid., 1; “Social Security Committee: Fifth Report 1994/5”, (London: House of Commons, 1995), 97.
87.
Fallon, The Paper Chase: A Decade of Change at the DSS.
88.
Ibid; “Security alert,” The Sunday Times, August 1, 1993; “Bookbytes,” The Guardian, July 29, 1993; “Hail to Britain’s very own SS,” The Herald, July 24, 1993; author Google Scholar search, last accessed 3rd April 2014.
89.
Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government; Helen Margetts and Leslie Willcocks, “Information Technology in Public Services: Disaster Faster?”, Public Money & Management 13, no.2, 1993; P.H.A. Frissen (ed.), European Public Administration and Informatisation: A comparative research project into policies, systems, infrastructures and projects (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1992); M. O’Higgins, “Computerising the Social Security System: An Operational Strategy in Lieu of a Policy Strategy” in D. Pitt and B. Smith (eds.), The Computer Revolution in Public Administration (Brighton: Edward Elgar, 1984); Agar, The Government Machine.
90.
Helen Margetts and Leslie Willcocks, “Information Technology in Public Services: Disaster Faster?”, Public Money & Management 13, no. 2 (1993): 49–56.
91.
Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government: Britain & America, 52.
92.
See Nicholas Timmins, The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State (London: HarperCollins, 1995); The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993); Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service; The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993); Hennessy, Whitehall.. An exception is Duncan Campbell and Steve Connor, On the Record: Surveillance, Computers and Privacy: The inside Story (London: Michael Joseph, 1986), 89.
93.
Helen Margetts, “The Computerisation of Social Security: The Way Forward or a Step Backwards?”, Public Administration 69 (1991): 326; Fallon, The Paper Chase, 2.
94.
Ibid., 1–5.
95.
Michael O’Higgins, “Computerizing the Social Security System: An Operational Strategy in lieu of a Policy Strategy?” Public Administration 62 (Summer 1984): 202.
96.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 9; Agar, The Government Machine, 374.
97.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, Wimbledon, London, February 27, 2014. See Appendix 1 for biography.
98.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 18–20.
99.
NAO, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General: Administrative Computing in Government Departments (London: HMSO, 1984), 5.
100.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 10; Agar, The Government Machine, 374–75.
101.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 17; Agar, The Government Machine, 374.
102.
Social Security Operational Strategy: A brief guide (London: DHSS, 1982), 3.
103.
Geoffrey Otton, “Managing social security: Government as big business”, International Social Security Review 27, no. 2, (1984): 165–168.
104.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 18; Department of Health and Social Security, A Strategy for Social Security Operations (London: HMSO, 1980).
105.
A Strategy for Social Security Operations (London: DHSS, 1982), 7.
106.
See, for instance, House of Lords debate, February 17, 1942, vol 121 cc852–66 where the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury stressed the need to consider the “development of the whole personality”; Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications (London: Allen Lane, 1968).
107.
The National Research Council, Second Review of a New Data Management System for the Social Security Administration (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1979).
108.
A Strategy for Social Security Operations, 1.
109.
De Grazia, Irresistible Empire, 458–80.
110.
Margetts, “Computerisation”, 327.
111.
Ibid., 327.
112.
Agar, The Government Machine, 375.
113.
The project was claimed to be the “largest computerisation project in Europe” in NAO, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General. Department of Social Security Operational Strategy (London: HMSO, 1989), 1.
114.
Helen Margetts and Leslie Willcocks, “Information Technology in Public Services: Disaster Faster?”, 52.
115.
Social Security Operational Strategy: Sunningdale Seminar December 1982 Report (London: DHSS, 1982), 5.
116.
See Table 17; Mark Otway, interview with author at Institute of Directors, Pall Mall, London, March 18, 2014. See Appendix 1 for biography.
117.
Ibid.
118.
Fallon, Paper Chase, 34–35.
119.
Ibid., 35.
120.
TNA: BN 13/297. “The Social Security Operational Strategy: Background working papers.” May 1984.
121.
Fallon, Paper Chase, 41.
122.
See, for instance, TNA: BN 120/62/1, “Operational Strategy Directorate – Progress Report – April 1985.” May 10, 1985; or TNA: BN 136/32, “Critical Strategy Projects – A Summary of Key Milestones.” March 1988.
123.
Fallon, Paper Chase, 46.
124.
Ibid., 103.
125.
Ibid., 67–69.
126.
For a sense of comparison of scale, Jon Agar has suggested that 25 years earlier there were 1000 computer terminals in all of Britain in Agar, The Government Machine, 331; for critiques, see, for instance, “Great computer cock-ups,” The Independent, January 24, 1997; Margetts, “Computerisation”, 332.
127.
Margetts and Willcocks, “Disaster Faster”, 50–1.
128.
Ian Watmore, interview with author, February 12, 2014.
129.
NAO, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General. Department of Social Security Operational Strategy (London: HMSO, 1989), 5.
130.
Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government, 64.
131.
Ibid., 61.
132.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
133.
David Butler, telephone interview with author, April 1, 2011.
134.
“Government IT; What happened to our £25bn?,” Computer Weekly, October 29, 2006.
135.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
136.
See, for instance, Sampson, The Essential Anatomy of Britain, 37; Heclo and Wildavsky, The Private Government of Public Money, 1–3.
137.
Interview with Stephen Hickey; for more on friendships formed, see Fallon, The Paper Chase, xiv.
138.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
139.
Ian Watmore, interview with author, February 12, 2014.
140.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, xiv.
141.
House of Commons debate, March 12, 1990, vol 169 c73w. “Arthur Andersen roll-out party.” The venue for this party is, sadly, unknown.
142.
See, for instance, Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service and Hennessy, Whitehall.
143.
Who’s Who, “Geoffrey Otton”; ibid., “Michael Partridge”; Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014; Ian Watmore, interview with author, February 12, 2014.
144.
Author interview with Mark Otway, March 18, 2014; Author interview with Stephen Hickey; Dunn’s role is also described in Fallon, The Paper Chase, 53.
145.
Harry Hopkins, The New Look: A Social History of the Forties and Fifties in Britain (London: Secker & Warburg, 1963), 159; Fallon, The Paper Chase, 53.
146.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
147.
Social Security Operational Strategy: A brief guide (London: DHSS, 1982), 3.
148.
Ibid.
149.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
150.
Joyce, The State of Freedom, 20; Christopher Hood has made similar claims about “nodality” being a vital tool of government policy – see Christopher Hood and Helen Margetts, The Tools of Government in the Digital Age (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 3.
151.
See in particular: Bruno Latour, Pandora’s Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 1999); Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
152.
James C. Scott, Seeing Like A State (London: Yale University Press, 1999), 1–8.
153.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
154.
Fallon, The Paper Chase, 6; author interview with Mark Otway.
155.
Phil Dunn’s subsequent career is mentioned in ibid., 114–15; Mike Fogden’s career is covered in his obituary in Public Finance, October 23, 2009, accessed November 12, 2014, http://opinion.publicfinance.co.uk/2009/10/obituary-mike-fogden-cb/; Alan Healey’s post-DSS career is on his LinkedIn profile, accessed November 12, 2014, http://uk.linkedin.com/pub/alan-healey/25/257/614; George Bardwell’s consultancy activities are recorded in “Support to Public Administration Reform Project ‘Support to the Civil Service Office’ (Slovakia)”, PAi report, 2001; for more on Executive Agencies, see Department of Social Security, Agency Study Report (London: HMSO, 1989), 1–2.
156.
NAO, Department of Social Security: Operational Strategy, 20.
157.
Margaret Thatcher Foundation, “General Election Press Conference,” June 8, 1987.
158.
Middleton, The British Economy since 1945, 50.
159.
Labour Party, Annual Conference Report (London: Labour Party, 1976), 188.
160.
John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: Grocer’s Daughter to Iron Lady, Rev. ed. (London: Vintage Books, 2009), 235.
161.
Margaret Thatcher Foundation, “Speech to the College of Europe”, September 20, 1988.
162.
House of Commons debate, Social Security Offices, December 1, 1982, vol 33 cc267–8.
163.
Keith Butterfield, Management in Government, 1982, vol 37–8, 92–3.
164.
Leo Howe, Being Unemployed in Northern Ireland: An Ethnographic Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 124.
165.
DHSS, A Strategy for Social Security Operations (London: Department of Health & Social Security, 1980), 1; Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
166.
Author analysis based on Office of National Statistics data. Available in “How Britain changed under Margaret Thatcher. In 15 charts,” The Guardian, April 8, 2013; Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: Grocer’s Daughter to Iron Lady, 177.
167.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
168.
See Churchill Archives: THCR 1/11/7 f62. Norman Fowler’s memo to Geoffrey Howe, “1983 Manifesto Draft”, March 23, 1983; and compare with the eventual manifesto, “1983 Conservative Party General Election Manifesto: The Challenge of Our Times”, accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.conservative-party.net/manifestos/1983/1983-conservative-manifesto.shtml
169.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
170.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014; Ian Watmore, interview with author, February 12, 2014.
171.
HoC debate, April 15, 1991, vol 189 c9; error rates noted in Margetts, Information Technology and Central Government: Britain & America, 53.
172.
“House of Commons Social Security Committee: Fifth Report”, HoC 382, 1994/5, 97.
173.
Geoffrey Otton, “Managing social security: Government as big business”, 161; Frank Field, The Conscript Army: A Study of Britain’s Unemployed (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), 63.
174.
“Government IT”, Computer Weekly; “20,000 jobs may go in tax office reform plan,” Financial Times, November 9, 1991.
175.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
176.
Otton, “Managing social security”, 170; author search of Margaret Thatcher Foundation archive, last accessed on April 3, 2014; Margaret Thatcher, The Path to Power (London: HarperCollins, 1995); Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London: HarperCollins, 1993).
177.
John Roy Major, John Major: The Autobiography (London: HarperCollins, 1999).
178.
TNA: CAB 129/215/15. “Civil service numbers after 1984.” Memo by Chief Secretary, Treasury. December 8, 1982.
179.
TNA: PIN 42/118. “Social Security Operations Strategy Working Group.” Memo: Mike Patterson to Dan Brereton, DHSS, October 13, 1980.
180.
For evidence of public concern, see “The threads going through the labyrinth,” The Guardian, November 9, 1987.
181.
M. J. Daunton, Just Taxes: The Politics of Taxation in Britain, 1914–1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Christopher M. Andrew, The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 (London: Penguin, 2010).
182.
A Strategy for Social Security Operations (London: HMSO, 1980); Social Security Operational Strategy: A Framework for the Future (London: HMSO, 1982).
183.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
184.
The main output of the architecture development work is a technical document detailing the system and user interface linking the DHSS’ information systems. From Mark Otway “Systems and technical Architecture Overview” (London: DHSS, 1985).
185.
See, for instance, Alfred Kieser cited in Kipping and Engwall, Management Consulting, 14; Craig and Brooks, Plundering the Public Sector.
186.
For more on the debates, see: HoC debate, April 6, 1981, vol 2 cc746–58; HoC debate, November 27, 1981, vol 13 cc1097–151. The decision was announced to adopt a “single tender [non-competitive] with ICL” on September 11, 1985. See TNA: BN136/1. “Management of LOP”. September 4, 1985.
187.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
188.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
189.
Lowe, The Welfare State in Britain since 1945, 315.
190.
Quoted in Fallon, The Paper Chase, 140.
191.
Mark Otway, interview with author, March 18, 2014.
192.
See, for instance, Michael Partridge (Permanent Secretary, DSS) and Michael Bichard’s (Chief Executive of the Benefits Agency) testimonies to the 1994–1995 Committee of Public Accounts on “Improving social services in London: the provision of services to customers” (London: House of Commons, 1995), 1–16, for an exemplar in the use of statistics to demonstrate performance of a given government organisation.
193.
Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.; Chichester: Princeton University Press, 1995), 5–7; for more on the obvious problem posed regarding the lack of objectivity in numbers which are perceived to be objective, see J. Adam Tooze, Statistics and the German State, 1900–1945: The Making of Modern Economic Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 3.
194.
“Computing that doesn’t compute,” The Guardian, December 12, 1999.
195.
Agar, The Government Machine, 1.
196.
Social Security Committee: Fifth Report 1994/5 (London: House of Commons, 1995), 60.
197.
Stephen Hickey, interview with author, February 27, 2014.
198.
“A Strategy for Social Security Operations”, 3.
199.
Social Security Committee: Fifth Report 1994/5 (London: House of Commons, 1995), 97.
200.
Ian Watmore, interview with author, February 12, 2014.
201.
The Times, February 16, 1995.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

London, UK
Antonio E. Weiss

Authors

Antonio E. Weiss
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weiss, A.E. (2019). Automating, 1980s: Arthur Andersen and the Operational Strategy. In: Management Consultancy and the British State. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99876-3_4

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99876-3_4
Published: 27 October 2018
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-99875-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-99876-3
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics