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The Growth of the Scholarly Publishing Industry in the U.S. pp 47–66Cite as

The War and Its Impact on Research: 1943–1945

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Abstract

Researchers at the atomic research facilities at Los Alamos and elsewhere needed access to scholarly information, and this was a problem because of the impact of the war and the severe security policies at these “atomic cities.” This chapter describes the work of Professor Langer at the Office of Strategic Services to launch a program to acquire secret German scientific research, the government’s seizure of German copyrighted scholarly publications and the republication program, the decision to consider killing Werner Heisenberg (who led the German atomic research during the war), the creation of a secret research library at Los Alamos, the development of plans for the atomic bomb, and the G.I Bill. President Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb ended the war, and the Bretton Woods conference set the stage for the growth of scholarly publishing in the sciences and the social sciences.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Atomic Rivals and the Alsos Mission;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/rivals.htm

  2. 2.

    Groves. Now It Can Be Told, pages 138–140.

  3. 3.

    U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Hanford Becomes Operational;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1943_pu/hanford_operational.htm. Also see Bruce Cameron Reed. “From Treasury Vault to the Manhattan Project,” The American Scientist 99, 1(February 2011); https://www.americanscientist.org/article/from-treasury-vault-to-the-manhattan-project

  4. 4.

    Groves. Now It Can Be Told, pages 138–148.

  5. 5.

    Denise Kiernan. The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II (New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 2013), pages 133–150. Also see Peter Bacon Hales. Atomic Spaces; Living on the Manhattan Project (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1997), pages 130–132.

  6. 6.

    Lisa Bier. “Atomic Wives and the Secret Library at Los Alamos,” American Libraries 30, 11(December 1999): 54.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., page 54.

  8. 8.

    Ibid., page 55

  9. 9.

    Ibid., page 55.

  10. 10.

    Denise Kiernan. The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II, pages 152–153.

  11. 11.

    Ibid. Also see Erin Blakemore. “Los Alamos Had A Secret Library,” https://daily.jstor.org/los-alamos-secret-library

  12. 12.

    Groves. Now It Can Be Told, pages 141–142.

  13. 13.

    Kiernan. The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II, pages 152–153.

  14. 14.

    U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Espionage and the Manhattan Project;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945.espionage.htm. Also see Marian Smith Holmes. “Spies Who Spilled Atomic Bomb Secrets;” https://www.smithsonian.com/history/spies-who-spilled-atomic-bomb-secrest-1279522660

  15. 15.

    Jennifer Davis Heaps. “Tracking Intelligence Information: The Office of Strategic Services,” The American Archivist 61, 2(Fall 1998), page 287. Also see Pamela Spence Richards. “The Quest for Enemy Scientific Information, 1939–1945,” Library History 9, 1–2(1991): 5–14.

  16. 16.

    Richard V. Williams and Ben-Ami Lipetz, eds. Covert and Overt: Recollecting and Connecting Intelligence Service Information Science (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2005), page 119. Also see Douglas Waller. Wild Bill Donovan: The Spymaster Who Created the OSS and Modern American Espionage (New York: The Free Press, 2011), pages 86, 175, 193.

  17. 17.

    Pamela Spence Richards. “Gathering Enemy Scientific Information in Wartime: The OSS and the Periodical Republication Program,” The Journal of Library History 16, 2(Spring 1981): 253–264.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., page 255.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., page 255. Also see Pamela Spence Richards. “Information Science in Wartime: Pioneer Documentation Activities in World War II,” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 39, 5(September 1988): 201–306.

  20. 20.

    Barbara Biasi and Petra Moser. “Effects of Copyrights on Science-Evidence from the US Book Republication Program,” NBER Working Paper 2018; page 1. http://www.nber.org/papers/w24255

  21. 21.

    Ibid., page 5.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., page 7. Also see President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Executive Order 9193; Amending Executive Order No. 9095 Establishing the Office of Alien Property Custodian and Defining the Functions and Duties and Related Matters; Signed: July 6, 1942. https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1942.html

  23. 23.

    U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “A Tentative Decision to Build the Bomb;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1939-1942/tentative_decision_build.htm. Also see U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Production Reactor (Pile) Design;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/1942-1945_ou/reactor_design.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Early Bomb Design;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/early_bomb_design.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “The Uranium Path to the Bomb;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1944_ur/1942-1944_uranium.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Basic Research at Los Alamos;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history?Events/1942-1945/basic_research.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Implosion Becomes a Necessity;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/implosion_necessity.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Oak Ridge and Hanford Come Through;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/come_through.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Final Bomb Design;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/final_design.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “More Uranium Research;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942/more_uranium.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “The Plutonium Path to the Bomb;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1944_pu/1942-1944_plutonium.htm

  24. 24.

    Nicholas Dawidoff. The Catcher Was a Spy: The Mysterious Life of Moe Berg (New York: vintage/ Random House, 1995), pages 203–204.

  25. 25.

    Ibid., page 205.

  26. 26.

    Franklin D. Roosevelt. “Signing Statement: The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944;” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16525

  27. 27.

    The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944. United States Statutes at Large, 1944. Volume 58, Part 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945), pages 288–294. The complete text of the bill is also available at the National Archives; https://catalog.archives.gov/id/299854

  28. 28.

    The Social Security Administration. “The G.I. Bill of Rights: An Analysis of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944;” Bulletin, July 1944, pages 3–4; https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v7n7/v7n7p3.pdf

  29. 29.

    Benn Steil. The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White, and the Making of a New World Order (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 2013), page 3.

  30. 30.

    The World Bank. “From Atlantic City to Bretton Woods;” http://external.worldbankimflib.org/Bwf/60panel2.htm

  31. 31.

    US. Department of State. “The Bretton Woods Agreement;” https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm. Also see The World Bank. “The Bretton Woods Conference, July 1–22, 1944;” http://www.worldbank.org/en/about/archives/history/exhibits/bretton-woods-monetary-conference. For the British view of the conference, see The National Archives of Great Britain. “Bretton Woods;” http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/bretton-woods.htm

  32. 32.

    Carl Shoup. “Three Plans for Post-War Taxation,” American Economic Review 34, 4(December 1944): 757–770. E.M. Bernstein. “A Practical International Monetary Policy,” American Economic Review 34, 4(December 1944): 771–784. Jacob L. Mosak. “Income, Money, and Prices in Wartime,” American Economic Review 34, 4(December 1944): 828–839. William Adams Brown. “The Repurchase Provisions of the Proposed International Monetary Fund,” American Economic Review 35, 1(March 1945): 111–120. David McCord Wright. “The Future of Keynesian Economics,” American Economic Review 35, 3(June 1945): 284–307. Gottfried Haberler. “The Choice of Exchange Rates After the War,” American Economic Review 35, 3(June 1945): 308–318.

  33. 33.

    Richard N. Cooper. “Review of the Bretton Woods Transcripts,” Journal of Economic Literature 52, 1(2014): 234–239. Gerald M. Meier. “The Bretton Woods Agreement – Twenty-Five Years After,” Stanford Law Review 23, 2(January 1971): 235–275.

  34. 34.

    Waldo Heinrichs and Marc Gallicchio. Implacable Foes: War in the Pacific 1944–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), page 5.

  35. 35.

    F.G. Gosling. U.S. Department of Energy. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2010), pages 112–113. Also see Sean Malloy. “Four Days in May: Henry L. Stimson and the Decision to use the Atomic Bomb,” The Asia-Pacific Journal 7, 14(April 4, 2009): 3–11.

  36. 36.

    The Franck Report; https://archive.org/details/FranckReport

  37. 37.

    Yale University Law School, The Avalon Project. “The Quebec Conference – Agreement Relating to Atomic Energy;” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/q002.asp. Also see The FDR Presidential Library & Museum. “World War II Facts;” https://fdrlibrary.org/wwii-facts

  38. 38.

    U.S. Department of State. Office of the Historian. “Aide-Memoire Initialed by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill;” Hyde Park, September 19, 1944; https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1944Quebec/d299. National Park Service, Harry S. Truman National Historical Site, Manhattan Project National Historical Park. “Harry S. Truman’s Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb;” https://www.nps.gov/articles/trumanatomicbomb.htm

  39. 39.

    Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. “Decision to Drop the Bomb;” https://www.trumanlibrary.org/hst/d.htm. Also see David H. Frisch. “Scientists and the Decision to Bomb Japan,” Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 26, 6(September 15, 2015): 107–115. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Debate Over How to Use the Bomb;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/debates.htm. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources. “The Trinity Test;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/trinity.htm

  40. 40.

    Gosling. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, pages 112–113. Also see U.S. Department of Energy. Office of History and Heritage Resources. “The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/hiroshima.htm. U.S. Department of Energy. Office of History and Heritage Resources. “The Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki;” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/nagasaki.htm

    U.S. Department of Energy. Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Postscript – The Nuclear Age (1945–Present);” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945-present/1945_postscript.htm. U.S. Department of Energy. Office of History and Heritage Resources. “Informing the Public (August 1945);” https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945-present/public_reaction.htm

  41. 41.

    Harry S. Truman. “Statement by the President Announcing the Use of the A-Bomb at Hiroshima, August 6, 1945.” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12169

  42. 42.

    John Gimbel. “Project Paperclip: German Scientists, American Policy, and the Cold War,” Diplomatic History 14, 3(Summer 1990): 343.

  43. 43.

    Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence. “Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program to Bring Nazi Scientists to America;” https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol-58-no-3/operation-paperclip-the-secret-intelligence-program-to-bring-nazi-scientists-to-america.html. Also see Danny Lewis. “Why the U.S. Government Brought Nazi Scientists to America After World War II;” https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-us-government-brought-nazi-scientists-america-after-world-war-ii-180961110

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  1. Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA

    Albert N. Greco

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Greco, A.N. (2019). The War and Its Impact on Research: 1943–1945. In: The Growth of the Scholarly Publishing Industry in the U.S.. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99549-6_4

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