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Mediating Multiculturalism: Jews, Blacks, and Curaçao, 1825–1970

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Abstract

In what ways were empires and their colonies transformed by Jews? This chapter answers that question by looking at the interactions between the two main “minority” groups on the Dutch Antillean island of Curaçao—Afro-Curaçaoans and (Sephardic) Jews. There were many political, business, social, and charitable connections. This chapter analyzes the horizontal relationships between Afro-Curaçaoans and Jews while also providing background and context on the history of Jewish-Afro-Curaçaoan relationships on the island. In keeping with the comparative turn in ethnic history, and current discussions around transnationalism and decolonization, this chapter re-centers the framework of analysis as being between a minoritized and a dominant culture. It brings to light intersecting histories that have been obscured by a focus on groups in isolation or in terms of their interaction with the “dominant” culture. The critical examination of Sephardic and Afro-Curaçaoan interactions challenges the prevailing logic of competition between minority groups.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For more on Jews as intermediaries in the Dutch West Indies, see Jessica Vance Roitman , “Portuguese Jews, Amerindians, and the Frontiers of Encounter in Colonial Suriname,” New West Indian Guide 88, no. 1–2 (2014): 18–52.

  2. 2.

    Francoise Lionnet and Shu-mei Shih, eds ., Minor Transnationalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); Michael Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonization (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009).

  3. 3.

    James Clifford, Routes: Travels and Translations in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 255.

  4. 4.

    Roth berg , Multidirectional Memory, 3.

  5. 5.

    Shih and Lionnet , Minor Transnationalism, 7.

  6. 6.

    Abdul JanMohamed and David Lloyd, “Toward a Theory of Minority Discourse: What Is To Be Done?,” in The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, eds. Abdul JanMohamed and David Lloyd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 1.

  7. 7.

    On the role of smallness, see Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977) and Wouter Veenendaal, Politics and Democracy in Microstates (London: Routledge, 2015). On the eighteenth century, see Jessica Vance Roitman and Aviva Ben-Ur, “Adultery Here and There: Crossing Sexual Boundaries in the Dutch Jewish Atlantic,” in Dutch Atlantic Connections, 1680–1800, eds. Jessica Vance Roitman and Gert Oostindie (Leiden: Brill), 185–223 and Jessica Vance Roitman , “‘A Mass of Mestiezen, Castiezen, and Mulatten:’ Fear, Freedom, and People of Color in the Dutch Antilles, 1750–1850,” Atlantic Studies 14, no. 3 (2017): 399–417.

  8. 8.

    Rosemary Allen, Di ki manera? A Social History of Afro-Curaçaoans , 1863–1917 (Amsterdam: SWP, 2007); Margo Groenewoud, “‘And Children You Remain:’ Democracy and Belonging in Mid-20th Century Curaçao,” unpublished paper presented at the Association of Caribbean Historians Conference, Havana, Cuba, 2016; Armando Lampe, Kerk en maatschappij op Curaçao (Willemstad: Vicario Provincial, 1991), 17–60; Gert Oostindie, Het paradijs overzee: De “Nederlandse” Caraïben en Nederland (Leiden: KITLV, 2011); Jaap van Soest, Olie als Water: De Curaçaose economie in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw (Zutphen: Walburg, 1977); Jeroen Dekker, Curaçao Zonder/Met Shell: een bijdrage tot bestudering van demografische, economische en sociale processen in de periode 1900–1929 (Zutphen: Walburg, 1982); René Antonio Römer, Curaçao (San Juan, P.R.: UNICA, 1981); W. E. Renkema , Het Curaçaose plantagebedrijf in de negentiende eeuw (Zutphen: Walburg, 1981); Johan Hartog, Curaçao: van kolonie tot autonomie, na 1816, vol. 2 (Aruba: De Wit, 1961).

  9. 9.

    Han Jordaan, Slavernij & vrijheid op Curaçao: de dynamiek van een achttiende-eeuws Atlantisch handelsknooppunt (Zutphen: Walburg, 2013); Linda Rupert , Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press, 2012); Jessica Vance Roitman , “‘A Flock of Wolves Instead of Sheep:’ The Dutch West India Company and Conflict Resolution in the Jewish Community of Curaçao in the 18th Century,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane Gerber (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2013), 85–105; Roitman and Ben-Ur, “Adultery Here and There;” Nanette de Jong, Tambú: Curaçao’s African-Caribbean Ritual and the Politics of Memory (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012).

  10. 10.

    Jonathan Schorsch , Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

  11. 11.

    Gert Oostindie, ed., Curaçao 30 mei 1969 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999), 17, 33.

  12. 12.

    Allen, Di ki manera?; Groenewoud , “‘And Children You Remain,’” 7.

  13. 13.

    Harry Hoetink, Het patroon van de oude Curaçaose samenleving: een sociologische studie (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1958), 105.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., 45.

  15. 15.

    Christopher W. Moore and Peter Woodrow, “Mapping Cultures: Strategies for Effective Intercultural Negotiations,” Track Two 8, no. 1 (1998): 25–27.

  16. 16.

    Karner, The Sephardics of Curaçao, 12; Hoetink, Het patroon van de oude Curaçaose samenleving, 41.

  17. 17.

    The following three paragraphs first appeared in Roitman , “‘A Flock of Wolves Instead of Sheep,’” 87–88.

  18. 18.

    A. F. Paula, From Objective to Subjective Social Barriers: A Historico-Philosophical Analysis of Certain Negative Attitudes Among the Negroid Population of Curaçao (Curaçao: NP, 1972).

  19. 19.

    Wim Klooster, “The Jews in Suriname and Curaçao,” in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, eds. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 354–59.

  20. 20.

    Also known as David Cohen Nassy.

  21. 21.

    Quoted in Jacob Adriaan Schiltkamp, Bestuur en rechtspraak in de Nederlandse Antillen ten tijde van de West-Indische Compagnie (Willemstad, Curaçao: NP, 1973), 36. There were some restrictions. For instance, they were not allowed to work on Sundays in deference to the Christian Sabbath. Though the reference is to New Netherland, the North American territory whose capital was New Amsterdam, no Jews were actually to be found there at the time. The intended reference could be to Dutch Brazil or even Suriname.

  22. 22.

    Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, “Between Amsterdam and New Amsterdam: The Place of Curaçao and the Caribbean in Early Modern Jewish History,” American Jewish History, 72, no. 2 (1982): 172–92.

  23. 23.

    I.S. Emmanuel, “Les juifs de la Martinique et leurs coreligionnairs d’Amsterdam au XVIIe siècle,” Revue des Etudes Juives 123 (1964): 511–16.

  24. 24.

    National Archive of the Netherlands (hereafter NL-HaNA), Nieuwe West-Indische Compagnie (NWIC) 594, fol. 132–39; NWIC 597, fol. 903–20, NWIC 600 and fol. 1010–25; Klooster, “Jews in Suriname and Curaçao,” 353.

  25. 25.

    Karner, The Sephardics of Curaçao, 29.

  26. 26.

    In 1659, the Amsterdam Sephardic community began “assisting” the migration of poorer Sephardim to Curaçao (as well as other colonies in the New World), which added to the lower-income population on the island. See for instance, Robert Cohen, “Passage to the New World: The Sephardi Poor of Eighteenth-Century Amsterdam,” in Neve Ya’akov: Jubilee Volume Presented to Dr. Jaap Meyer, eds. Lea Dasberg and Jonathan N. Cohen (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1982), 31–42; Yosef Kaplan, An Alternatative Path to Modernity: The Sephardi Diaspora in Western Europe (Leiden: Bril, 2000), 85–6, 287; Evelyne Oliel -Grausz, “A Study in Intercommunal Relations in the Sephardi Diaspora : London and Amsterdam in the Eighteenth Century,” in Dutch Jews as Perceived by Themselves and by Others: Proceedings of the Eight International Symposium on the History of the Jews in the Netherlands, eds. Chaya Brasz and Yosef Kaplan (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 51.

  27. 27.

    Yosef Kaplan, “The Curaçao and Amsterdam Jewish Communities in the 17th and 18th Centuries,” American Jewish History 72, no. 2 (1982): 193–211, 206.

  28. 28.

    Ibid., 199.

  29. 29.

    Rupert , Creolization and Contraband, 236–237.

  30. 30.

    Wim Klooster, “Curaçao as a Transit Center to the Spanish Main and the French West Indies,” in Dutch Atlantic Connections, 1680–1800, eds. Jessica Vance Roitman and Gert Oostindie (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 25, 51. Klooster estimates that by the middle of the eighteenth century, the number of Jewish families in Willemstad was nearly half that of white non-Jews. Based on WIC tax records, Klooster believes that by 1789 there were about 6000 free residents in Willemstad, which included free blacks and “coloreds”—most of whom were Catholics—as well as 2469 Protestants and 1095 Jews. See Wim Klooster, “Jews in Suriname and Curaçao,” 353, 355.

  31. 31.

    Roitman , “‘A Mass of Mestiezen, Castiezen, and Mulatten.’”

  32. 32.

    Schorsch , Jews and Blacks, 261.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    Paula , From Objective to Subjective Social Barriers, 30; Eva Abraham-Van der Mark, “The Ashkenazi Jews of Curaçao, a Trading Minority ,” New West Indian Guide 74, no. 3/4 (2000): 257–80.

  35. 35.

    Ditzhuijzen, A Shtetl Under the Sun, 19.

  36. 36.

    Abraham -Van der Mark, “The Ashkenazi Jews of Curaçao.”

  37. 37.

    Ditzhuijzen, A Shtetl Under the Sun, 198–209.

  38. 38.

    Abraham -Van der Mark, “The Ashkenazi Jews of Curaçao,” 269.

  39. 39.

    Shih and Lionnet , Minor Transnationalism, 56.

  40. 40.

    Ibid.

  41. 41.

    Schorsch , Jews and Blacks, 261.

  42. 42.

    T. van der Lee, Curaçaose Vrijbrieen, 1722–1863 (The Hague: Algemeen Rijksarchief, 1998), 47.

  43. 43.

    Schorsch , Jews and Blacks, 453, n. 68.

  44. 44.

    There is a wealth of information on the Jews of Suriname and their relationship with their (formerly) enslaved, as well as their modes and expressions of Judaism. See, for example, Natalie Zemon Davis , “David Nassy’s ‘Furlough’ and the Slave Mattheus,” in New Essays in American Jewish History, eds. Pamela S. Nadell , Jonathan D. Sarna, and Lance J. Sussman (Cincinnati, Oh.: American Jewish Archives of Hebrew Union College, Jewish Institute of Religion, Jersey City, NJ: KTAV, 2010), 79–94 and her “Regaining Jerusalem: Eschatology and Slavery in Jewish Colonization in Seventeenth-Century Suriname,” The Cambridge Journal of Postcolonial Literary Inquiry 3, no. 1 (2016):11–38; Wieke Vink , Creole Jews: Negotiating Community in Colonial Suriname (Leiden : KITLV , 2010); Rachel Frankel and Aviva Ben Ur, Remnant Stones: The Jewish Cemeteries of Suriname: Epitaphs (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 2009) and their Remnant Stones: The Jewish Cemeteries and Synagogues of Suriname: Essays (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 2012); Aviva Ben Ur, “The Cultural Heritage of Eurafrican Sephardi Jews in Suriname,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane Gerber (Oxford: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), 169–94; Aviva Ben Ur, “A Matriarchal Matter: Slavery, Conversion , and Upward Mobility in Colonial Suriname,” in Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos , and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800, eds. Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 152–69; Aviva Ben Ur, “Peripheral Inclusion: Communal Belonging in Suriname’s Sephardic Community,” in Religion, Gender, and Culture in the Pre-Modern World,” eds. Alexandra Cuffel and Brian Britt (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 185–210; Schorsch, Jews and Blacks, ch . 8–10; and Robert Cohen, Jews in Another Environment: Surinam in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century (Leiden: Brill, 1991).

  45. 45.

    Isaac S. Emmanuel, Precious Stones of Curaçao: Curaçaon Jewry 1656–1957 (New York: Bloch Publishing Company, 1957), 310–13.

  46. 46.

    Isaac S. and Suzanne A. Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1970), 1:66n18.

  47. 47.

    Ibid., 2:548.

  48. 48.

    Emmanuel, Precious Stones of Curaçao, 126, plate 71.

  49. 49.

    Schorsch , Jews and Blacks, 227.

  50. 50.

    J. Hartog , Curaçao: From Colonial Dependence to Autonomy (Aruba: De Wit, 1968), 183.

  51. 51.

    Gouvernementsblad 1832, no. 2, art. 22. For more on naming practices in the Dutch colonies, specifically Suriname, see Alex van Stipriaan, “What’s in a name? Slavernij en naamgeving in Suriname tijdens de 18e en 19de eeuw,” Oso: Surinaamse Taalkunde, Letterkunde en Geschiedenis 9, no. 1 (1990): 25–46.

  52. 52.

    Karner, Sephardics of Curaçao, 24. This seems to have only been the case for illegitimate children of Sephardic fathers.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., 23–24.

  54. 54.

    Schorsch , Jews and Blacks, 266–67.

  55. 55.

    NL-HaNA, Curaçao, Oude Archieven tot 1828, 1.05.12.01, inv. no. 237, June 21, 1821. In 1821, the militia was divided into five companies: “Caucasians, Jews, Mestizos, Mulattoes and Negroes, and Sailors of Whatever Color or Creed.” Jews were required to substitute men of other companies in recompense for these men serving for them on the Jewish Sabbath or on other Jewish holidays.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., 267, n. 70.

  57. 57.

    John D. Garrigus, “Blue and Brown: Contraband Indigo and the Rise of a Free Colored Planter Class in French Saint-Domingue,” The Americas 50, no. 2 (1992): 223–67; and his “The Curaçao Connection: Sephardic Networks and Saint-Domingue,” paper delivered at the conference on “The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West,” John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI, 1997.

  58. 58.

    J. M. R. Schrils, Een democratie in gevaar: een verslag van de situatie op Curaçao tot 1987 (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1990), 61.

  59. 59.

    Max A. Scriwanek, Padre de los pobres (Willemstad: Maduro Holding, 2013), 12.

  60. 60.

    Eva Abraham-Van der Mark, “Marriage & Concubinage among the Sephardic Merchant Elite of Curaçao,” in Women and Change in the Caribbean, ed. Janet Momsen (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), 38–49.

  61. 61.

    Scriwanek , Padre de los pobres, 12; Emmanuel and Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 1:478–85.

  62. 62.

    Curaçaose Courant, August 17, 1844; Emmanuel and Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 1:337.

  63. 63.

    Abraham Mendes Chumaceiro, Zal het kiesrecht Curaçao tot het kannibalisme voeren? (Curaçao, SP: 1895), 66. The title and context of this publication is a good example of the fact that “horizontal” relations are so often infected by or inflected with the “vertical” relations with/against the dominant group.

  64. 64.

    Emmanuel and Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 1:337.

  65. 65.

    The Dutch did not bequeath their Reformed religion to their enslaved people nor, in large part, to their descendants on Curaçao. Instead, they largely allowed Roman Catholic priests from the neighboring Spanish mainland to baptize and proselytize to the (formerly) enslaved. This policy left a legacy of racial religious segmentation on the island, with the vast majority of people of color being Catholic, and the majority of whites being Protestants, with the exception of (Sephardic) Jews, who belonged to one of the Jewish communities. Slavery was abolished in the Dutch territories in 1863.

  66. 66.

    J.H.J. Hamelberg, Het kiesrecht in Curaçao en de afscheiding van de eilanden boven den wind van de kolonie (S.l.: s.n., 1894)

  67. 67.

    Chumaceiro, Zal het kiesrecht, 11.

  68. 68.

    Hamelberg, Het kiesrecht in Curaçao, 2.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., 10–11.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., 3.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., 4.

  72. 72.

    Ibid., 4.

  73. 73.

    Chumaceiro , Zal het kiesrecht, 12–23. For more about the situation in Coro, see Emmanuel and Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 1:349–52; Isaac Emmanuel, The Jews of Coro, Venezuela (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1973); M. J. Bakkum, “De Curaçaos-Joodse gemeenschap van Coro, Venezuela, en de Pogrom van 1855” (MA thesis , Leiden University, 1993); Isidoro Aizenberg, “The 1855 Expulsion of the Curaçoan Jews from Coro, Venezuela,” American Jewish History 72, no. 4 (1983): 495–507 and his “ ‘Die or leave:’ An Anti-Jewish Riot in Nineteenth Century Venezuela,” American Jewish History 69, no. 4 (1980): 478–87.

  74. 74.

    Chumaceiro, Zal het kiesrecht, 23–35.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., 40.

  76. 76.

    Ibid., 19.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., 23.

  78. 78.

    [David Nassy], Historical Essay on the Colony of Surinam, 1788, trans. Simon Cohen, eds. Jacob R. Marcus and Stanley F. Chyet (Cincinnati, Oh.: American Jewish Archives; New York: KTAV, 1974). Although the names of other members of the Mahamad are given at the end of the opening epistle of the book, archival research by several scholars has definitively established that David de Isaac Cohen Nassy was the author. See Cohen, Jews in Another Environment, and Davis, “David Nassy’s ‘Furlough’ and the Slave Mattheus.”

  79. 79.

    Hamelberg, Het kiesrecht in Curaçao, 11.

  80. 80.

    Curaçao was known for the large number of free people of color, a population percentage that was considered dangerously high by the mid-eighteenth century. The Dutch colonial officials, as well as the white population of the Dutch colonies, often failed to differentiate between free people of color, and those that were still enslaved. They often grouped both groups together in their proclamations and ordinances. See Roitman , “‘A Mass of Mestiezen, Castiezen, and Mulatten;’” Harry Hoetink, “Surinam and Curaçao,” in Neither Slave Nor Free: The Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World, eds. David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 59–83; Wim Klooster, “Subordinate but Proud: Curaçao’s Free Blacks and Mulattoes in the Eighteenth Century,” New West Indian Guide 68, no. 3/4 (1994): 283–300; Jordaan, Slavernij and Vrijheid op Curaçao and his “Free Blacks and Coloreds, and the Administration of Justice in Eighteenth-Century Curaçao,” New West Indian Guide 84, no. 1–2 (2010): 63–86.

  81. 81.

    Chumaceiro, Zal het kiesrecht, 25.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., 26.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., 26–27.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., 39.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 39.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., 39–40. It is remarkable how similar Chumaceiro’s rhetoric parallels the writing of European Christian reformers and Jews who wrote about “the Jews.” Christian Wilhelm Dohm and Moses Mendelssohn immediately come to mind. It would require more research to discover whether, or to what degree, he was familiar with Enlightenment-era literature about “the Jewish question.”

  87. 87.

    Ibid., 40.

  88. 88.

    Ibid., 41.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., 27–28.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., 28–29.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., 30–31.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., 31.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., 42.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., 6. For more relationships between Blacks and Jews, see Robert Philipson, The Identity Question: Blacks and Jews in Europe and America (Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 2000); John Garrigus, “New Christians/‘New Whites :’ Sephardic Jews, Free People of Color, and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue, 1760–1789,” in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, eds. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 314–34; and Harvey Chisick, “On the Margins of the Enlightenment: Blacks and Jews,” The European Legacy 21, no. 2 (2016): 127–44.

  96. 96.

    Amigoe di Curaçao, November 27, 1941, 2.

  97. 97.

    Schrils , Een Democratie in gevaar, 126.

  98. 98.

    Amigoe de Curaçao, April 20, 1965, 1. Interestingly, when Isa was interviewed in 1998/1999, he claimed that there were many Jews who supported the DP and used as an example the fact that the Treasurer of the party was Jewish. See Oostindie, Curaçao, 55.

  99. 99.

    This ties into a growing body of literature that looks at the (political) participation of minorities in the development of nations and nation-states. See Ina Baghdiantz McCabe et al., eds., Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History (Oxford: Berg, 2005) and her The Shah’s Silk for Europe’s Silver: The Eurasian Trade of the Julfa Armenians in Safavid Iran and India (1530–1750) (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999); Jessica Vance Roitman , “Creating Confusion in the Colonies: Jews, Citizenship, and the Dutch and British Atlantics,” Itinerario 36, no. 2 (2012): 55–90; and Cátia Antunes and Jessica Vance Roitman , “A War of Words: Sephardi Merchants, (Inter) National Incidents, and Litigation in the Dutch Republic, 1580–1640,” Jewish Culture and History 16, no. 1 (2015): 24–44.

  100. 100.

    Rothberg , Multidirectional Memory, 3.

  101. 101.

    Shih and Lionnet, Minor Transnationalism, 7.

  102. 102.

    Sarah Phillips Casteel, Calypso Jews: Jewishness in the Caribbean Literary Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 3; Sidney Mintz, The Birth of African-American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); Wieke Vink , Creole Jews.

  103. 103.

    There is a large body of postcolonial literature that has challenged this perspective. See, for instance, Stuart Hall’s “When Was the Post-Colonial? Thinking at the Limit,” in The Post-Colonial Question: Common Skies, Divided Horizons, eds. Iain Chambers and Lidia Curti (London: Routledge, 1996), 242–60; Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Jonathan Schorsch, Swimming the Christian Atlantic, 2 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 2009).

  104. 104.

    This paragraph is drawn from Ethan B. Katz, Lisa Moses Leff, and Maud S. Mandel, “Introduction: Engaging Colonial History and Jewish History,” in Colonialism and the Jews, eds. Ethan B. Katz, Lisa Moses Leff, and Maud S. Mandel (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2017), 1–25

  105. 105.

    On this point, see Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, “Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, eds. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997), 1–56, 6.

  106. 106.

    Katz, Leff, and Mandel, “Introduction.”

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  1. Royal Netherlands Institute for Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Jessica V. Roitman

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  1. University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

    Sina Rauschenbach

  2. University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

    Jonathan Schorsch

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Roitman, J.V. (2018). Mediating Multiculturalism: Jews, Blacks, and Curaçao, 1825–1970. In: Rauschenbach, S., Schorsch, J. (eds) The Sephardic Atlantic. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99196-2_4

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