Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Thyroid Disease and Reproduction pp 19–43Cite as

Hypothyroidism

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 1152 Accesses

Abstract

Hypothyroidism is the deficiency of thyroid hormone due to either decreased secretion from the thyroid gland (primary hypothyroidism) or ineffective stimulation from the pituitary or hypothalamus (secondary hypothyroidism). The most common cause is autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland, known as Hashimoto’s hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism affects all systems in the body; however, there are no specific signs or symptoms. The probability of the diagnosis increases with the number of features present. Thyroid function can be assessed by checking thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (T4) levels. Various non-thyroidal conditions can affect the levels, however, and care should be taken to account for these before labelling the patient as hypothyroid. The mainstay of treatment is levothyroxine, which is one of the most commonly prescribed medications in the United States.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Brent G, Davies T. Hypothyroidism and thyroiditis. In: Melmed S, Polonsky K, Larsen P, Kronenberg H, editors. Williams textbook of endocrinology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, Appleton D, Bates D, Clark F, et al. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol. 1995;43:55–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM. Epidemiology and prevention of clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2002;12:839–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Oddie T, Boyd C, Fisher D, Hales I. Incidence of signs and symptoms in thyroid disease. Med J Aust. 1972;2(18):981–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Zulewski H, Müller B, Exer P, Miserez AR, Staub JJ. Estimation of tissue hypothyroidism by a new clinical score: evaluation of patients with various grades of hypothyroidism and controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 Mar;82(3):771–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Baskin H, Cobin RH, Duick DS, Gharib H, Guttler RB, Kaplan MM, et al. American association of clinical endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2002;8(6):457–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. The 10 most popular prescription drugs in the US. Business Insider [Internet]. 2016 Oct 26 [cited 2017 Nov 27]; Available from: http://www.businessinsider.com/popular-prescription-drugs-us-2016-10.

  8. Braverman L, Utiger R. Introduction to hypothyroidism. In: Braverman L, Utiger R, editors. Werner and Ingbar’s the thyroid. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, William and Wilkins; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Mizukami Y, Michigishi T, Kawato M, Sato T, Nonomura A, Hashimoto T, Matsubara F. Chronic thyroiditis: thyroid function and histologic correlations in 601cases. Hum Pathol. 1992;23(9):980–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, Appleton D, Bates D, Clark F, Grimley Evans J, Hasan DM, Rodgers H, Tunbridge F, et al. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol. 1995;43(1):55–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Weissel M, Hofer R, Zasmeta H, Mayr W. HLA-DR and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Tissue Antigens. 1980;16:256–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Moens H, Farid N. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is associated with HLA-DRw3. N Engl J Med. 1978;299:133–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Saverino D, Brizzolara R, Simone R, Chiappori A, Milintenda-Floriani F, Pesce G, Bagnasco M. Soluble CTLA-4 in autoimmune thyroid diseases: relationship with clinical status and possible role in the immune response dysregulation. Clin Immunol. 2007;123(2):190–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Wiebolt J, Achterbergh R, den Boer A, van der Leij S, Marsch E, Suelmann B, et al. Clustering of additional autoimmunity behaves differently in Hashimoto's patients compared with Graves' patients. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011;164(5):789–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Jørgensen KT, Rostgaard K, Bache I, Biggar RJ, Nielsen NM, Tommerup N, et al. Autoimmune diseases in women with Turner's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62(3):658–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Weetman A. Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. In: Braverman L, Utiger R, editors. Werner and Ingbar’s the thyroid. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, William and Wilkins; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bogner U, Kotulla P, Peters H, Schleusener H. Thyroid peroxidase/microsomal antibodies are not identical with thyroid cytotoxic antibodies in autoimmune thyroiditis. Acta Endocrinol. 1990;123(4):431–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Tahara K, Ishikawa N, Yamamoto K, Hirai A, Ito K, Tamura Y, Yoshida S, Saito Y, Kohn LD. Epitopes for thyroid stimulating and blocking autoantibodies on the extracellular domain of the human thyrotropin receptor. Thyroid. 1997;7(6):867–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ahsan MK, Urano Y, Kato S, Oura H, Arase S. Immunohistochemical localization of thyroid hormone nuclear receptors in human hair follicles and in vitro effect of L-triiodothyronine on cultured cells of hair follicles and skin. J Med Investig. 1998;44(3–4):179–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Törmä H, Rollman O, Vahlquist A. Detection of mRNA transcripts for retinoic acid, vitamin D3, and thyroid hormone (c-erb-A) nuclear receptors in human skin using reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction. Acta Derm Venereol. 1993;73(2):102–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kaplan MM, Gordon PR, Pan CY, Lee JK, Gilchrest BA. Keratinocytes convert thyroxine to triiodothyronine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1988;548:56–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Isseroff RR, Chun KT, Rosenberg RM. Triiodothyronine alters the cornification of cultured human keratinocytes. Br J Dermatol. 1989;120(4):503–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Yazdanparast P, Carlsson B, Oikarinen A, Risteli J, Faergemann J. A thyroid hormone analogue, triiodothyroacetic acid, corrects corticosteroid-downregulated collagen synthesis. Thyroid. 2004;14(5):345–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Parving HH, Hansen JM, Nielsen SL, Rossing N, Munck O, Lassen NA. Mechanisms of edema formation in myxedema--increased protein extravasation and relatively slow lymphatic drainage. N Engl J Med. 1979;301(9):460–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Smith TJ, Bahn RS, Gorman CA. Connective tissue, glycosaminoglycans, and diseases of the thyroid. Endocr Rev. 1989;10(3):366–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Schell H, Kiesewetter F, Seidel C, von Hintzenstern J. Cell cycle kinetics of human anagen scalp hair bulbs in thyroid disorders determined by DNA flow cytometry. Dermatologica. 1991;182(1):23–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Mullin GE, Eastern JS. Cutaneous signs of thyroid disease. Am Fam Physician. 1986;34(4):93–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Burman KD, McKinley-Grant L. Dermatologic aspects of thyroid disease. Clin Dermatol. 2006;24(4):247–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Ingbar D. The pulmonary system in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 781.

    Google Scholar 

  30. McDaniel HG, Pittman CS, Oh SJ, DiMauro S. Carbohydrate metabolism in hypothyroid myopathy. Metabolism. 1977;26(8):867–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Kopecká K, Zacharova G, Smerdu V, Soukup T. Slow to fast muscle transformation following heterochronous isotransplantation is influenced by host thyroid hormone status. Histochem Cell Biol. 2014;142(6):677–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Gottehrer A, Roa J, Stanford GG, Chernow B, Sahn SA. Hypothyroidism and pleural effusions. Chest. 1990;98(5):1130–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Jha A, Sharma SK, Tandon N, Lakshmy R, Kadhiravan T, Handa KK, Gupta R, Pandey RM, Chaturvedi PK. Thyroxine replacement therapy reverses sleep-disordered breathing in patients with primary hypothyroidism. Sleep Med. 2006;7(1):55–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Baker JT, Harvey RF. Bowel habit in thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. Br Med J. 1971;1(5744):322–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Wasan S, Sellin J, Vassilopoulou-Sellin R. The gastrointestinal tract and liver in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 796–9.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Goldin E, Wengrower D. Diarrhea in hypothyroidism: bacterial overgrowth as a possible etiology. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1990;12(1):98–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Liwanpo L, Hershman JM. Conditions and drugs interfering with thyroxine absorption. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23(6):781–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. İlhan M, Arabaci E, Turgut S, Karaman O, Danalioglu A, Tasan E. Esophagus motility in overt hypothyroidism. J Endocrinol Investig. 2014;37(7):639–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Eng O, Potdevin L, Davidov T, Lu S, Chen C, Trooskin S. Does nodule size predict compressive symptoms in patients with thyroid nodules? Gland Surg. 2014;3(4):232–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Van Steenbergen W, Fevery J, De Vos R, Leyten R, Heirwegh KP, De Groote J. Thyroid hormones and the hepatic handling of bilirubin. I. Effects of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism on the hepatic transport of bilirubin mono- and diconjugates in the Wistar rat. Hepatology. 1989;9(2):314–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. de Castro F, Bonacini M, Walden JM, Schubert TT. Myxedema ascites. Report of two cases and review of the literature. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1991;13(4):411–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Wang Y, Yu X, Zhao QZ, Zheng S, Qing WJ, Miao CD, Sanjay J. Thyroid dysfunction, either hyper or hypothyroidism, promotes gallstone formation by different mechanisms. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2016;17(7):515–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Kaptein E. The kidney and electrolyte metabolism in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 789.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Diekman MJ, Harms MP, Endert E, Wieling W, Wiersinga WM. Endocrine factors related to changes in total peripheral vascular resistance after treatment of thyrotoxic and hypothyroid patients. Eur J Endocrinol. 2001;144(4):339–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Sabio JM, Rodriguez-Maresca M, Luna JD, del RC G, Vargas F. Vascular reactivity to vasoconstrictors in aorta and renal vasculature of hyperthyroid and hypothyroid rats. Pharmacology. 1994;49:257–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. van Hoek I, Daminet S. Interactions between thyroid and kidney function in pathological conditions of these organ systems: a review. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2009;160(3):205–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Das KC, Mukherjee M, Sarkar TK, Dash RJ, Rastogi GK. Erythropoiesis and erythropoietin in hypo- and hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1975;40:211–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Sun MT, Hsiao FC, Su SC, Pei D, Hung YJ. Thyrotropin as an independent factor of renal function and chronic kidney disease in normoglycemic euthyroid adults. Endocr Res. 2012;37(3):110–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hataya Y, Igarashi S, Yamashita T, Komatsu Y. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy for primary hypothyroidism leads to significant improvement of renal function in chronic kidney disease patients. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2013;4:525–31.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Shin DH, Lee MJ, Lee HS, Oh HJ, Ko KI, Kim CH, et al. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy attenuates the decline of renal function in chronic kidney disease patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2013;6:654–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Macaron C, Famuyiwa O. Hyponatremia of hypothyroidism. Appropriate suppression of antidiuretic hormone levels. Arch Intern Med. 1978;138(5):820–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Skowsky WR, Kikuchi TA. The role of vasopressin in the impaired water excretion of myxedema. Am J Med. 1978;64(4):613–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Santoro D, Vadalà C, Siligato R, Buemi M, Benvenga S. Autoimmune thyroiditis and glomerulopathies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2017;2(8):119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Klein I, Danzi S. Thyroid disease and the heart. Circulation. 2007;116(15):1725–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Sun Z, Ojamaa K, Coetzee WA, Artman M, Klein I. Effects of thyroid hormone on action potential and repolarization currents in rat ventricular myocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000;278:E302–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Klein I, Ojamaa K. Thyroid hormone and the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kabadi UM, Kumar SP. Pericardial effusion in primary hypothyroidism. Am Heart J. 1990;120(6 Pt 1):1393–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Biondi B, Klein I. Hypothyroidism as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Endocrine. 2004;24(1):1–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Axelrod AR, Berman L. The bone marrow in hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Blood. 1951;6:436–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Szczepanek-Parulska E, Hernik A, Ruchała M. Anemia in thyroid diseases. Pol Arch Intern Med. 2017;127(5):352–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Marqusee E, Mandel S. The blood in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 803–5.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Bernal J. Thyroid hormones in brain development and function. In: De Groot LJ, Chrousos G, Dungan K, Feingold KR, Grossman A, Hershman JM, Koch C, Korbonits M, McLachlan R, New M, Purnell J, Rebar R, Singer F, Vinik A, editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000. 2 Sep 2015.

  63. Palumbo CF, Szabo RM, Olmsted SL. The effects of hypothyroidism and thyroid replacement on the development of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg Am. 2000;5(4):734–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Schwartz MS, Mackworth-Young CG, McKeran R. The tarsal tunnel syndrome in hypothyroidism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983;46:440.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Suarez G, Sabin TD. Meralgia parasthetica and hypothyroidism. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:149.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Asher R. Myxedematous madness. BMJ. 1949;2:555.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Whybrow P, Bauer M. Behavioral and psychiatric aspects of hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 842.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Burmeister LA, Ganguli M, Dodge HH, Toczek T, DeKosky ST, Nebes RD. Hypothyroidism and cognition: preliminary evidence for a specific defect in memory. Thyroid. 2001;11(12):1177–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Samuels MH. Psychiatric and cognitive manifestations of hypothyroidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014;21(5):377–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Ueno S, Tsuboi S, Fujimaki M, Eguchi H, Machida Y, Hattori N, Miwa H. Acute psychosis as an initial manifestation of hypothyroidism: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2015;17(9):264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Montagna G, Imperiali M, Agazzi P, D'Aurizio F, Tozzoli R, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Giovanella L. Hashimoto's encephalopathy: a rare proteiform disorder. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(5):466–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Krassas GE, Pontikides N. Male reproductive function in relation with thyroid alterations. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;18(2):183–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Krassas GE. Thyroid disease and female reproduction. Fertil Steril. 2000;74(6):1063–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Gardner D. The neuromuscular system and brain in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 836.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Sindoni A, Rodolico C, Pappalardo MA, Portaro S, Benvenga S. Hypothyroid myopathy: a peculiar clinical presentation of thyroid failure. Review of the literature. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2016;17(4):499–519.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Gittoes N, Sheppard M. The skeletal system and brain in hypothyroidism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 830.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Williams GR, Bassett JHD. Thyroid diseases and bone health. J Endocrinol Investig. 2018;41(1):99–109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Brabant G, Ocran K, Ranft U, von Zur Mühlen A, Hesch RD. Physiological regulation of thyrotropin. Biochimie. 1989;71(2):293–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Surks MI, Boucai L. Age- and race-based serum thyrotropin reference limits. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(2):496–502.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Després N, Grant AM. Antibody interference in thyroid assays: a potential for clinical misinformation. Clin Chem. 1998;44(3):440–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, Pessah-Pollack R, Singer PA, Woeber KA. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Thyroid Association Taskforce on hypothyroidism in adults. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Endocr Pract. 2012;18(6):988–1028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ain KB, Pucino F, Shiver TM, Banks SM. Thyroid hormone levels affected by time of blood sampling in thyroxine-treated patients. Thyroid. 1993;3:81–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Koulouri O, Moran C, Halsall D, Chatterjee K, Gurnell M. Pitfalls in the measurement and interpretation of thyroid function tests. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;27(6):745–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, Bagchi N, Bigos ST, Levy EG, Smith SA, Daniels GH, Cohen HD. American Thyroid Association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction. Arch Intern Med. 2000 June 12;160(11):1573–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Helfand M, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for subclinical thyroid dysfunction in nonpregnant adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140(2):128–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Parle JV, Franklyn JA, Cross KW, Jones SR, Sheppard MC. Thyroxine prescription in the community: serum thyroid stimulating hormone level assays as an indicator of undertreatment or overtreatment. Br J Gen Pract. 1993;43(368):107–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. De Whalley P. Do abnormal thyroid stimulating hormone level values result in treatment changes? A study of patients on thyroxine in one general practice. Br J Gen Pract. 1995;45(391):93–5.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Mosekilde L, Eriksen EF, Charles P. Effects of thyroid hormones on bone and mineral metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 1990;19(1):35–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, Doherty GM, Mandel SJ, Nikiforov YE, Pacini F, Randolph GW, Sawka AM, Schlumberger M, Schuff KG, Sherman SI, Sosa JA, Steward DL, Tuttle RM, Wartofsky L. 2015 American Thyroid Association management guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid Cancer: the American Thyroid Association guidelines task force on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid Cancer. Thyroid. 2016;26(1):1–133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Saravanan P, Chau WF, Roberts N, Vedhara K, Greenwood R, Dayan CM. Psychological well-being in patients on 'adequate' doses of l-thyroxine: results of a large, controlled community-based questionnaire study. Clin Endocrinol. 2002;57(5):577–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Slawik M, Klawitter B, Meiser E, Schories M, Zwermann O, Borm K, Peper M, Lubrich B, Hug MJ, Nauck M, Olschewski M, Beuschlein F, Reincke M. Thyroid hormone replacement for central hypothyroidism: a randomized controlled trial comparing two doses of thyroxine (T4) with a combination of T4 and triiodothyronine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(11):4115–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Escobar-Morreale HF, Botella-Carretero JI, Gómez-Bueno M, Galán JM, Barrios V, Sancho J. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy in primary hypothyroidism: a randomized trial comparing L-thyroxine plus liothyronine with L-thyroxine alone. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142(6):412–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Siegmund W, Spieker K, Weike AI, Giessmann T, Modess C, Dabers T, Kirsch G, Sänger E, Engel G, Hamm AO, Nauck M, Meng W. Replacement therapy with levothyroxine plus triiodothyronine (bioavailable molar ratio 14: 1) is not superior to thyroxine alone to improve Well-being and cognitive performance in hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol. 2004;60(6):750–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Ma C, Xie J, Huang X, Wang G, Wang Y, Wang X, Zuo S. Thyroxine alone or thyroxine plus triiodothyronine replacement therapy for hypothyroidism. Nucl Med Commun. 2009;30(8):586–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Wartofsky L. Myxedema coma. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2006;35(4):687–98. vii-viii

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Ord WM. Report of a committee of the Clinical Society of London to investigate the subject of myxoedema. Trans Clin Soc (Lond). 1888; (Suppl):21.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Sanders V. Neurologic manifestations of myxedema. N Engl J Med. 1962;266:547–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Zwillich CW, Pierson DJ, Hofeldt FD, Lufkin EG, Weil JV. Ventilatory control in myxedema and hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:662–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Yamamoto T. Delayed respiratory failure during the treatment of myxedema coma. Endocrinol Jpn. 1984;31:769–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. DeRubertis FR Jr, Michelis MF, Bloom MG, Mintz DH, Field JB, Davis BB. Impaired water excretion in myxedema. Am J Med. 1971;51:41–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Wartofsky L, Burman KD. Alterations in thyroid function in patients with systemic illness: the euthyroid sick syndrome. Endocr Rev. 1982;3:164–217.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Wartofsky L. Myxedema Coma. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, Werner SC, Ingbar SH, editors. The thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 850.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Brent G, Davies T. Hypothyroidism and thyroiditis. In: Melmed S, Polonsky K, Larsen P, Kronenberg H, editors. Williams textbook of endocrinology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2011. p. 431–3.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:526–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, Appleton D, Bates D, Clark F, et al. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty year follow-up of the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol. 1995;43:55–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Peeters RP. Subclinical hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(14):1404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Cooper DS, Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet. 2012;379:1142–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Chan S, Boelaert K. Optimal management of hypothyroidism, hypothyroxinaemia and euthyroid TPO antibody positivity preconception and in pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 2015;82(3):313–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Villar HC, Saconato H, Valente O, Atallah AN. Thyroid hormone replacement for subclinical hypothyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;3:CD003419.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Somwaru LL, Rariy CM, Arnold AM, Cappola AR. The natural history of subclinical hypothyroidism in the elderly: the cardiovascular health study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(6):1962–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Mississippi Medical Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Jackson, MS, USA

    Vishnu Vardhan Garla

  2. University of Mississippi Medical Center, Departments of Cellular and Molecular Biology, and Internal Medicine, Jackson, MS, USA

    Licy L. Yanes Cardozo

  3. University of Mississippi Medical Center, Division Chief of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, Jackson, MS, USA

    Lillian Frances Lien

Authors
  1. Vishnu Vardhan Garla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Licy L. Yanes Cardozo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lillian Frances Lien
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vishnu Vardhan Garla .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA

    Jennifer L. Eaton

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Garla, V.V., Yanes Cardozo, L.L., Lien, L.F. (2019). Hypothyroidism. In: Eaton, J. (eds) Thyroid Disease and Reproduction. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99079-8_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99079-8_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-99078-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-99079-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation