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Sacred Surveillance: Indian Muslims, Waqf, and the Evolution of State Power in French Mandate Syria

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British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East

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Abstract

The development and evolution of surveillance capacities around waqf—pious endowment property—was an important if overlooked dynamic during the French Mandate in Syria (1920–1946). Comparative analysis of British and French sources draws out new insights regarding the larger system of administration and surveillance of waqf in Syria. Two little-studied features of the interwar Anglo-French colonial experience frame this chapter: the emergence of pious endowments as a key site of state surveillance and the extent to which the circulation of people through colonial spaces destabilized already tenuous colonial categories of citizenship, identity, and property.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This chapter was made possible with a generous dissertation research grant from the Department of History at Princeton University. I am especially grateful to my faculty advisor Prof. Max Weiss for guidance on early drafts and to Dr. Saarah Jappie, Dr. Elizabeth Nugent, and Amos Goodman for sharing their comments, expertise, and support. Any errors are entirely my own. IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40. Wherever possible, I observe the International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies guidelines for transliteration of Arabic and conventions for italicization.

  2. 2.

    British Library, India Office Records (IOR)/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  3. 3.

    Karl K. Barbir, Ottoman Rule in Damascus 1708–1758. (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1980), 108–109.

  4. 4.

    IOR/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  5. 5.

    Algerians in Syria by 1945, according to Mandate authorities, comprised a large majority who arrived with the Emir Abdel Kadr, those who stayed on after completing pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and about 14,000 to 15,000 members of the Free French Forces. See Ministère des Affaires étrangères français—Centre des Archives diplomatiques de Nantes (MAE CADN) 1SL/V/31/Sûreté aux Armées/Colonie Nord-Africaine de Syrie/10 Mar. 1945; Eugene Rogan, Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 72–76; Keith Watenpaugh, Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2006), 281–283.

  6. 6.

    Damascus was a site of Ottoman power projection at the confluence of major trade and pilgrimage networks. Barbir, Ottoman Rule in Damascus 1708–1758, 161–167.

  7. 7.

    British and French sources pertaining to the Damascus waqf invoke a variety of names for South Asian Muslims living under British rule or protection. British sources refer to Indians, Sindis (variously construed), and Indian Muslims. French sources refer to variations of Indiens.

  8. 8.

    The politics of official archives in Syria puts many critical historical sources beyond all but the exceptional (or accidental) access of researchers. See Michael Provence, “Ottoman and French Mandate Land Registers for the Region of Damascus,” Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 39, no. 1 (2005): 32–43.

  9. 9.

    Comprehensive comparative treatments, alas, are the minority but include Nadine Méouchy and Peter Sluglett, eds., French Mandates in Comparative Perspectives/Les mandats français et anglais dans une perspective comparative (Leiden: Brill, 2004).

  10. 10.

    Presumptive and irreconcilable tensions have been a feature of scholarship since the publication of Stephen Hemsley Longrigg’s seminal work, arguably the first comprehensive historical study made of the French Mandate. See Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (London: Oxford University Press, 1958).

  11. 11.

    I address the dimensions and consequences of this relationship in my forthcoming dissertation, James Casey, “States of Sacred Surveillance: Administration and Governance of Waqf and the Evolution of State Power and Capacity in Syria, 1920–1960,” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2019.

  12. 12.

    Typically waqf was real property; however, any revenue-generating object from books to horses was sometimes endowed as waqf. See J. O. Hunwick, “Waḳf,” Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, eds. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs. (Brill Online 2014). Estimates for the total amount property vary for both urban and non-urban endowments. See Beshara Doumani, “Endowing Family: Waqf, Property Devolution, and Gender in Greater Syria, 1800–1860.” Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History 40, no. 1 (1998): 11–12.

  13. 13.

    On the role of waqf in the history of education in the Islamic world, see George Makdisi, The Rise of the Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), 35–74; concerning the role of waqf in the provisioning of social services see Timur Kuran, “The Provision of Public Goods under Islamic Law: Origins, Impact, and the Limitations of the Waqf System.” Law & Society Review 35, no. 4 (2001): 841–898 and Amy Singer, Constructing Ottoman Beneficence: An Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002).

  14. 14.

    République français Ministère des affaires étrangères, Rapport à la Société des Nations sur la situation de la Syrie et du Liban (Année 1934) (Paris: Imprimerie nationale 1934), 59. NB: statistics and surveys produced by the Mandate administration should be cautiously evaluated. Non-Muslim waqf was left under the supervision of the respective religious communities, and data not collected.

  15. 15.

    République français Ministère des affaires étrangères, Rapport à la Société des Nations sur la situation de la Syrie et du Liban (Année 1934), 177. The reference to Mandate state budgetary expenditure is intended be illustrative of scale and is not a normative or quantitative comparison with valuations of total waqf in the Mandate. Wealth and expenditure are not interchangeable, although in the case of waqf they are deeply intertwined as revenues of endowment properties supported or at least complemented formal state expenditures. In the context of a paucity of complete data in French sources and the inaccessibility of Syrian records, this is the most useful comparison to indicate scale.

  16. 16.

    This initially took the form of statelets (Damascus, Aleppo, Alawite, and Druze states) alongside the État du Grand Liban. See Jean Luquet, La Politique des mandats dans le Levant (Paris: Aux editions de la vie universitaire 1923), 66–7. Regarding the initial administrative reorganization under French military rule, see Roger de Gontaut-Biron, Comment la France s’est installée en Syrie (1918–1919) (Paris: Librarie Plon, 1923), 101–148; for the implications of waqf in the conditions particular to the Mandate of Lebanon, see Max Weiss, In The Shadow of Sectarianism: Law, Shi’ism, and the Making of Modern Lebanon (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 133–149.

  17. 17.

    On the formation of the Mandate security state, see Daniel Neep, Occupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State Formation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 20–38; Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 77.

  18. 18.

    Arrêté 753 superseded the military administration of waqf enacted on 1 October 1918 and was itself modified by a series of arrêtés over the course of the Mandate, which Louis Cardon describes in detail. Louis Cardon, Le Régime de la propriété foncière en Syrie et au Liban (Paris: Librairie du Recueil Sirey, 1932), 185–203.

  19. 19.

    James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 2.

  20. 20.

    Ranajit Guha, A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 9, 100–101.

  21. 21.

    Guha, A Rule of Property for Bengal, 11, 91.

  22. 22.

    Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 12–14.

  23. 23.

    MAE CADN/1/SL/251/17 Affaire Village de Zerra 1921–1941.

  24. 24.

    James L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 88; Masoud Dahar, “Siyasat al-ʾIntidab al-Fransi Tijah al-ʾAwqaf fi Lubnan,” in Al-ʾAwqaf fi Bilad al-Sham Mundhu al-Fatah al-ʾIslami ila Nihayyat al-Qarn al-ʿAshrin, ed. Muhamad Adnan al-Bakhit (Amman: Munshurat Lajnat Tarikh Bilad al-Sham—al-Jamiʿa al-ʾUrduniyya, 2010), 407–421.

  25. 25.

    98,000 of the 683,149 Indian army recruits during the First World War were combat troops from the Muslim community of West Punjab, many of whom fought in campaigns in the Middle East. David Page, Prelude to Partition: The Indian Muslims and the Imperial System of Control, 1920–1932 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 52.

  26. 26.

    IOR/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  27. 27.

    John Slight, The British Empire and the Hajj 1856–1956 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015), 203.

  28. 28.

    IOR/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  29. 29.

    Conflict, plague, and other disturbances played roles in the relative ebb and surge of pilgrimage on land (or sea). Barbir, Ottoman Rule in Damascus 1708–1758, 177–180.

  30. 30.

    Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 222–224. The defeat of the British Indian army and capture of thousands of British and Indian soldiers was also a political disaster for the Indian government, which had to account for a military rout and the thousands of Indian POWs deported into the Ottoman interior as far as Dier-a-Zour, where they encountered Armenian genocide victims.

  31. 31.

    IOR/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  32. 32.

    IOR/L/PS/11/166 P213/1920.

  33. 33.

    Mandate officials were sensitive to the circulation of individuals from within and without the French colonial space, particularly as it concerns the transit of Muslim pilgrims through Syria to Mecca and Medina. MAE CADN/1SL/5/253/Cabinet politique/Société des nations/Relations exterieurs/Pelerinage aux lieux saints de l’Islam/document #20.

  34. 34.

    Michael Christopher Low, “Empire and the Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam under British Surveillance, 1865–1908,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40, no. 2 (2008), 272–274.

  35. 35.

    On the history of France’s more direct interventions in pilgrimage, see Benjamin Claude Brower, “The Colonial Haj: France and Algeria, 1830–1962,” in Venetia Porter and Liana Saif, eds., The Hajj: Collected Essays (London: British Museum Press, 2013), 113.

  36. 36.

    Martin Thomas, “Colonial Policing: A Discursive Framework,” in Martin Thomas, ed., Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers, and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 19–20, 41.

  37. 37.

    Toby Dodge, Inventing Iraq: The Failure of Nation-Building and a History Denied (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 131–156; Priya Satia, Spies in Arabia: the Great War and the Cultural Foundations of Britain’s Covert Empire in the Middle East (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 4–6, 239–262.

  38. 38.

    Jean-David Mizrahi, Genèse de l’État mandataire: Service des Renseignements et bandes armées en Syrie et au Liban dans les années 1920 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2003), 10–11.

  39. 39.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Telegram 15 July 1932 from Foreign, Simla to British Consul, Damascus Syria. A zāwiyya, a term most common in North Africa for a place of learning and associated accommodation, would have identified the “Zawiat-ul-Hanood” waqf in question as the “Indians’ zāwiyya.”

  40. 40.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria. The perspective of French Mandate officials on the matter may be found in MAE CADN/1SL/1/V/377 Wakf and MAE CADN/1SL/250/83 Service/juridique/wakfs.

  41. 41.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Telegram 19 July 1932 from British Consul, Damascus to Foreign, Simla.

  42. 42.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Page 2 section ii of enclosed report. Ottoman gold continued to be the preferred and often prescribed currency in private transactions in Syria well into the French Mandate due to widespread mistrust of paper notes issued by the French-sponsored Banque du Syrie et du Liban. See Philip Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate, 86.

  43. 43.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Telegram 19 July 1932 from British Consul, Damascus to Foreign, Simla.

  44. 44.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Telegram 19 July 1932 from British Consul, Damascus to Foreign, Simla.

  45. 45.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter 16 Oct. 1935 from Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatallah, K.C.S.I., Member of the Indian Legislative Assembly, to the Secretary of the Government of India, Department of Education, Health, and Lands.

  46. 46.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358:PZ 1614/40 Syria, letter no. 1181/347/71 of 20 May 1936. Letter from HM Consul Damascus to O.K. Caroe, Esquire, Foreign and Political Department New Delhi.

  47. 47.

    The other Indian waqf was indicated to be in the Bab Jabia quarter of the city. IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, letter no. 1181/347/71 of 20 May 1936. Letter from HM Consul Damascus to O.K. Caroe, Esquire, Foreign and Political Department New Delhi.

  48. 48.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, letter no. 1181/347/71 of 20 May 1936. Letter from HM Consul Damascus to O.K. Caroe, Esquire, Foreign and Political Department New Delhi.

  49. 49.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter no. 1181/347/71 20 May 1936. Letter from HM Consul Damascus to O.K. Caroe, Esquire, Foreign and Political Department New Delhi, page 1.

  50. 50.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter 23 Feb. 1939 from HM Consul Damascus to Sir Aubrey Metcalfe, Secretary to the Government of India, External Affairs Department.

  51. 51.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter 19 Sept. 1935 from Mahmood Hamza to Seth Haji Abdullah Haroon, M.L.A.

  52. 52.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter 23 Sept. 1935 from Seth Haji Abdullah Haroon, M.L.A. to The Foreign Secretary, Government of India.

  53. 53.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Letter 23 Feb. 1939 from HM Consul Damascus to Sir Aubrey Metcalfe, Secretary to the Government of India, External Affairs Department.

  54. 54.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria, Document 6.

  55. 55.

    W. L. Ochsenwald, “A Modern Waqf: The Hijaz Railway, 1900–48,” Arabian Studies 3 (1976): 1–12.

  56. 56.

    Ed. Achille Sékaly, “Les deux Congrès musulmans de 1926,” Les deux Congrès généraux de 1926 special issue of Revue du monde musulman 64, no. 3 (1926): 3–25.

  57. 57.

    MAE CADN 1SL/250/13 Chemins de Fer Réseau du Hedjaz Note 5 June 1924. In accordance with arrêté 1820, of 17 February 1928, the Commission des Nationalités the Hedjaz RR is considered an “organisme etranger” and that it would, like the customs regime, be subject to the jurisdiction of the mixed courts. See MAE CADN 1SL/250/13 Chemins de Fer Réseau du Hedjaz Note 4 June 1931.

  58. 58.

    MAE CADN 1SL/251/16 Wakfs Alouties/Dossier 4/3.

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    Clifford D. Rosenberg, Policing Paris: The Origins of Modern Immigration Control between the Wars (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006), 109–140, 168–197.

  61. 61.

    One of the more infamous disputes related to an exceptionally large and wealthy endowment in Aleppo that pitted Muslim waqf authorities against Christian landowners. See Fatallah Saqal, Qadaya Waqf al-ʾUthmaniyya (Aleppo: Muṭbaʿa sabaʿ ʾakhwan, 1936), 4–8.

  62. 62.

    Beshara Doumani, “Endowing Family: Waqf, Property Devolution, and Gender in Greater Syria, 1800–1860,” 11–12; It is fitting that disputes over a waqf, which historically occasioned the contestation and formation of gender in law and society would be a forum to contest claims to membership in local, national, and pious communities. For a detailed analysis, see Judith E. Tucker, In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria and Palestine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).

  63. 63.

    IOR/L/PS/12/358: PZ 1614/40 Syria: Indian Wakf property and pilgrimage hostel at Damascus, letter no. 1181/347/71.

  64. 64.

    IOR/L/PS/11/263, P 4399/1925: 3 December 1925–3 January 1929 P 4399/1925 Syria.

  65. 65.

    Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), Ahmadiyyas presented a new challenge to Orthodox interpretations of Islam. Adil Hussain Khan, From Sufism to Ahmadiyya: A Muslim Minority Movement in South Asia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015), 134.

  66. 66.

    IOR/L/PS/11/263, P 4399/1925: 3 December 1925–3 January 1929 P 4399/1925 Syria, Letter from G.F. Malik.

  67. 67.

    Ibid.

  68. 68.

    Ibid.

  69. 69.

    Elizabeth Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 73–79.

  70. 70.

    Michael Provence, The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), 144–145.

  71. 71.

    IOR/L/PS/12/876: Ext 6287/43 Levant states: position of Syria and the Lebanon in relation to France; question of independence.

  72. 72.

    Ibid.

  73. 73.

    Srinath Raghavan, India’s War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (New York: Basic Books, 2016), 139–140.

  74. 74.

    Letters from home detailing the increasing famine conditions in India—ignored if not abetted outright by British authorities—reached Indian soldiers in the Middle East in ever greater numbers by the time Allied forced occupied Syria in 1943. See Yasmin Khan, India at War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 203.

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

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    Casey, J. (2019). Sacred Surveillance: Indian Muslims, Waqf, and the Evolution of State Power in French Mandate Syria. In: Fichter, J.R. (eds) British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97964-9_5

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