Abstract
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, German merchants hardly forayed into the trade in the Indian Ocean World, including the China trade. Their trials to conduct or take some part in the East Indian trade by themselves, as they were actively run by the British, Dutch, Portuguese or Spanish, were destined to fail. However, the circumstances changed considerably upon the arrival of the modern period: in and after the middle of the nineteenth century, their trading activities in the Indian Ocean World grew rapidly, especially in its eastern parts, such as the newly opened treaty ports along the Chinese coast after the Opium and Arrow Wars, and the British free ports like Singapore and Hong Kong. This article gives firstly an overview of those German trading activities, from their long stagnation to rapid growth, based on comprehensive survey of German literature as well as of some primary sources. Secondly, it examines backgrounds of the change, illuminating the meanings of the newly established treaty system in China after the Opium War, the abolishment of the British navigation acts and the spread of international ‘public goods’ under the British hegemon for German merchants in the nineteenth century.
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Notes
- 1.
Michael Greenberg (1951) British Trade and the Opening of China 1800–1842 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 25–34.
- 2.
Leading Asian trading companies, such as the English or the Dutch East India Companies (EIC/VOC), may well have had personnel native to German-speaking regions, and there were attempts by merchants of German origin and companies chartered by monarchs of German-speaking regions to conduct A China trade (to be discussed later).
- 3.
Albert Berg [1825–1884] (1864–1873), ed. Die Preußische Expedition nach Ost-Asien: Nach amtlichen Quellen (Berlin: Verlag der Königlichen Geheimen Ober-Hofbuchdruckerei), 4 vols. The Japanese government refused the participation of any German states in the treaty other than Prussia, while the Chinese and Siamese regarded it as no problem to conclude the treaty with all thirty-odd German sovereign states, led by Prussia. With regard to this, see: Mariko Fukuoka 福岡万里子 (2013) Puroisen Higashi-Ajia ensei to bakumatsu gaikō プロイセン東アジア遠征と幕末外交 (Tōkyō: Tōkyō daigaku shuppankai); Mariko Fukuoka (2017) “Prussia or North-Germany? The Image of ‘Germany’ During Prusso-Japanese Treaty Negotiations in 1860–1861”, in Sven Saaler, Kudō Akira, and Tajima Nobuo (eds.), Mutual Perceptions and Images, in Japanese-German Relations, 1860–2010 (Leiden: E. J. Brill), 67–88. The latter Fukuoka’s article is basically an English translation of Chapter 5 of the former book. The present study originates from a part of Chapter 2 of the same book.
- 4.
Reinhold Werner [1825–1909] (1863) Die Preußische Expedition nach China, Japan und Siam in den Jahren 1860, 1861 und 1862: Reisebriefe, vol. 1 (Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus), 97, translated into English by Mariko Fukuoka from the original German: “Die deutschen Handelshäuser Singapurs gehören zu den angesehensten der Stadt und stehen nach den Engländern in erster Reihe. Die Flaggen der verschiedenen deutschen Länder, namentlich aber die Hamburger, sind im Hafen sehr stark vertreten, und der deutsche Handel entfaltet sich von Jahr zu Jahr mehr”.
- 5.
Reinhold Werner (1863) Die Preußische Expedition, vol. 2, 215: “(ich habe bereits früher bemerkt,) daß der Handel der Deutschen, oder vielmehr, um nicht mißverstanden zu werden, daß die deutschen Kaufleute in China die zweite Rangstufe einnehmen, sowie daß die deutsche Schiffahrt an den dortigen Küsten jede andere verdrängt hat”.
- 6.
To be described later in this chapter.
- 7.
To be discussed later in this chapter.
- 8.
There have been only a few English language articles relating to the topic up to this point, to the best of my knowledge: Hermann Kellenbenz (1982) “German Trade Relations with the Indian Ocean from the End of the Eighteenth Century to 1870”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 13:1, 113–152; Ricardo K. S. Mak (2004) “The German Community in 19th Century Hong Kong”, Asia Europe Journal 2.3, 238–255. The article of Kellenbenz gives an outline of German trading activities during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the Indian Ocean World, except in Chinese waters. The article of Mak is an illuminating study on German commercial and missionary activities in Hong Kong throughout the nineteenth century, especially from its beginning in the 1840s, through its active development up to the eve of the First World War. In Chinese, there is the following study on Chinese–German relations from the early modern to the modern period (I owe this knowledge to Prof. Susumu Murao of the Tenri University): Wentang Yu 余文堂 (1995) ZhongDe zaoqi maoyi guanxi 中徳早期貿易關係 (Xinzhuang: Daohe chubanshe); and Wentang Yu (2007) ZhongDe zaoqi guanxishi lunwenji 中徳早期關係史論文集 (Banqiao: Daoxiang chubanshe).
- 9.
For example, see Masashi Haneda 羽田正 (2007) Higashi Indo Kaisha to Asia no umi 東インド会社とアジアの海 (Tōkyō: Kodansha); Leonard Blussé (2008) Visible Cities: Canton, Nagasaki, and Batavia and the Coming of the Americans (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press).
- 10.
“German” in this chapter means “German-speaking”, or “from a German-speaking region”, and not (necessarily) “from Germany”, or “of German nationality”.
- 11.
Percy E. Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee: Der Deutsche Handel mit den anderen Kontinenten, insbesondere Afrika, von Karl V. bis zu Bismark: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rivalität im Wirtschaftsleben (Braunschweig et al.: Georg Westermann Verlag), 24–28; for example, Spain proposed in 1625 to grant the Hanseatic cities the freedom to go trade in India, provided that they would refuse the Dutch any access to their cities (Spain and the Holland were at odds over the independence of the latter at the time). See Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731: Der Beginn des Hamburger Chinahandels (Gossenberg: Ostasien Verlag), 44.
- 12.
Ernst Baasch (1927) “Holländische Wirtschaftsgeschichte”, in Georg Brodnitz (ed.), Handbuch der Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer), 438; Theodor Hansen (1913) Hamburg und die zollpolitische Entwicklung Deutschlands im 19. Jahrhundert (Hamburg: Verlag von C. Boysen), 49–50; Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr von seiner Entstehung bis zum Ausbruch des Weltkrieges” (PhD thesis, University of Kiel), 65–67; Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr mit England und den englischen Kolonien 1814–1860”, in Hermann Kellenbenz (ed.), Forschungen zur Internationalen Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, vol. 11 (Köln and Wien: Böhlau Verlag), 21–39, 141–160, 463–469; Jurgen Prüser (1962) Die Handelsverträge der Hansestädte Lübeck, Bremen und Hamburg mit überseeischen Staaten im 19. Jahrhundert: Karl H. Schwebel (ed.), Veröffentlichungen aus dem Staatsarchiv der Freien Hansestadt Bremen, vol. 30 (Bremen: Carl Schünemann Verlag), 18–19; Percy Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee, 28–29, 37; Kurt Wahl (1901) “Die niederländische Handelspolitik in der zweiten Hälfte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts” (PhD thesis, University of Heidelberg), 3–5.
- 13.
Theodor Hansen (1913) Hamburg und die zollpolitische Entwicklung, 50, 56; Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 66; Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr”, 21–39; Jurgen Prüser (1962) “Die Handelsverträge der Hansestädte”, 18; Percy Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee, 28–29.
- 14.
Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731, 41–49; Percy Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee, 36–37.
- 15.
Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731, 25–69.
- 16.
The formal Austrian charter was issued in 1722, and, by then, the company was provided with an Imperial passport from Wien (Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731, 17–19.
- 17.
Heinrich Berger (1899) Überseeische Handelsbeziehungen und koloniale Pläne unter Friedrich dem Grossen (Leipzig: Buchhandlung Gustav Fock); John Everaert (1995) “Willem Bolts: India Regained and Lost: Indiamen, Imperial Factories and Country Trade (1775–1785)”, in Kuzhippalli S. Mathew (ed.), Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History (New Delhi: Manohar), 363–369; Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731; Percy Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee, 33–36; and Viktor Ring (1890) Asiatische Handlungscompagnien Friedrichs des Großen: Ein Beitrag zur Gechichte des preußischen Seehandels und Aktienwesens (Berlin: Carl Heymanns Verlag).
- 18.
Heinrich Berger (1899) Überseeische Handelsbeziehungen; John Everaert (1995) “Willem Bolts”, 363–369; Percy Schramm (1950) Deutschland und Übersee, 33–36; and Ring (1890) Asiatische Handlungscompagnien.
- 19.
Just as the above-mentioned Daniel Beal avoided the exclusionism of the E.I.C. in Canton by using the title “Prussian Consul”.
- 20.
Same as footnote 20. Among the three, the Imperial Ostend Company (A) seems to have been historically the most meaningful. From 1715 to 1732, the company sent no less than 55 ships in all from Ostend to East India, among them 28 to Canton, 25 to India and 2 to the African coast. While Jacob Tobin, Irish by birth and the company’s representative, stayed in Canton from 1718 to 1719, he submitted the letter of Carl VI to the Kangxi Emperor and obtained Imperial permission to stay and trade for “Habsburgian” subjects. With this permission, they could establish their own factory under the Habsburgian flag in 1719. The Habsburgian Emperor announced the liquidation of the company in the Treaty of Wien, forged with the English King George II. in 1731. In exchange of this concession, Carl VI was assured by the British and later by the Dutch of their acknowledgement rights of succession to the imperial throne by either sex, namely by his daughter Maria Theresia. Although full liquidation was delayed for decades, and it is said that the Ostend factory still existed in 1785 in Canton, and it was only in 1793 that the company was formally and finally liquidated (Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731, 17–35).
- 21.
In this regard, see footnote 70.
- 22.
Heinrich Sieveking (1942) “Die Anfänge des Hauses Behn, Meyer & Co. in Singapore”, Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 35, 177–211; Wigan M. W. T. Salazar (2000) “German Economic Involvement in the Philippines, 1871–1918” (PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London); Dirk Van der Laan (1996) “Bakumatsu-Meiji-ki no Yokohama no Doitsu Shosha” 幕末・明治期の横浜のドイツ商社, in Yokohama Archives of History and Yokohama Kyoryuchi Kenkyukai (eds.), Yokohama kyoryūchi to ibunka kōryū. 19-seiki gohan no kokusai toshi o yomu 横浜居留地と異文化交流. 19 世紀後半の国際都市を読む (Tōkyō: Yamakawa shuppansha), 81–94.
- 23.
Jurgen Prüser (1962) “Die Handelsverträge der Hansestädte”, 33–34.
- 24.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs Hamburgs mit Vorderindien und Ostasien”, Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg 13, 119; Hermann Wätjen (1942/1943) “Die deutsche Handelsschiffahrt in chinesischen Gewässern um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts”, Hansische Geschichtsblätter 67/68, 224–225; and Michael Greenberg (1951) British Trade, 102, 214.
- 25.
Ostasiatischer Verein, ed. (1960) Ostasiatischer Verein Hamburg-Bremen zum 60 jährigen Bestehen (Hamburg: Kühn), 220; Maria Mörning (1971) Siemssen & Co. 1846–1971 (Hamburg: Verlag Hanseatischer Merkur).
- 26.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 113.
- 27.
In this regard, see Ricard Mak (2004) “The German Community in Nineteenth Century Hong Kong”, Asia Europe Journal 2.2, 237–255.
- 28.
Some of the data cited in Hermann Wätjen (1942/1943) “Die deutsche Handelsschiffahrt” are extracted from the “Hong Kong Government Gazette”, the official gazette of the British authority of the port, for example, the number of Hamburg ships entering Hong Kong in 1864, as well as the numbers of different Western ships entering Hong Kong in the same year (see also Table 11.4).
- 29.
The numbers of Hamburg ships indicated in Table 11.2 as having arrived in Hong Kong from 1850 to 1855 are, more correctly speaking, those having arrived in Hong Kong and Whampoa 黄埔 (Ernst Baasch [1897] “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 116). As Whampoa was the final anchorage for Western vessels coming to Canton, the numbers during this period would also include those of Canton. The number for Hong Kong after this period refers to those having arrived actually in Hong Kong and does not include those of Canton.
- 30.
Akio Nakai 中井晶夫 (1971) Shoki Nihon-Suisu kankeishishi: Suisu renpo monjokan no bakumatsu Nihon bōoeki shiryō 初期日本–スイス関係史-スイス連邦文書館の幕末日本貿易史料 (Tōkyō: Kazama shobō).
- 31.
Yokohama Archives of History, Kanagawa-Shinbun, and DKSH Japan, ed. (2011) Kōto no reimei: Brennwald nikki kara 港都の黎明–ブレンワルド日記から (Yokohama: Yohohama Archives of History).
- 32.
Kurt Meissner (1961) Deutsche in Japan, 1639–1960 (Tōkyō: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens); Dirk Van der Laan (1996) “Bakumatsu-Meiji-ki”, 81–94.
- 33.
Johannes Kreyher [1834–1910] (1863) Die preußische Expedition nach Ostasien in den Jahren 1859–1862: Reisebilder aus Japan, China und Siam: aus dem Tagebuche (Hamburg: Rauhes Haus), 146.
- 34.
Albert Berg (1864–1873) Die Preussische Expedition, vol. 3, 376.
- 35.
Johannes Kreyher (1863) Die preußische Expedition, 189.
- 36.
Johannes Kreyher (1863) Die preußische Expedition, 189. Theoretically, Japanese trade was kept closed to all German ships except Prussian ships until the Prussian-Japanese commercial treaty of 1861 was expanded to the other German ships in 1867 as the result of the establishment of the North-German Confederation. In this regard, see Holmer Stahncke (1987) Die diplomatische Beziehungen zwischen Deutschland und Japan: 1854–1868 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden), Chapter 10; Mariko Fukuoka (2013) Puroisen Higashi-Ajia, Chapter 6.
- 37.
Jacob’s report cited in Helmuth Stoecker (1958) Deutschland und China im 19. Jahrhundert: Das Eindringen des deutschen Kapitalismus (Berlin: Rütten & Loening), 47; Berichte über Handelsbeziehungen zum östlichen Asien, von C. Jacob und Fr. W. Grube: China. Bericht über Wollenwaaren und einige andere Europäische Importe, von C. Jacob, in Handelsberichte der kaufmännischen Begleiter der Ostasiatischen Expedition, 171 Seiten (als Manuskript gedruckt) (Berlin: Gedruckt in der Königlichen Geheimen Oberhofdruckerei, 2. Aufl. 1863), 118, in Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz [hereafter GStAPK], III. HA, MdA II, Nr. 5078, Handels- und Schiffahrtsverhältnisse mit China, Bd. 16 (January 1863–Juli 1863).
- 38.
Gustav A. Spieß [1802–1875] (1864) Die Preußische Expedition nach Ost-Asien während der Jahre 1860–1862: Reiseskizzen aus Japan, China und Siam und der indischen Inselwelt (Berlin and Leipzig: Verlag von Otto Spamer), 220, 304.
- 39.
Max von Brandt [1835–1920] (1861) “Die nördlichen, durch den Vertrag von Peking geöffneten Häfen, mit besonderen Berücksichtigung von Tientsin”, dated on September 5th 1861 in Tientsin. [handwritten manuscript], in GStAPK III. HA, MdA II, Nr. 5084, Handels- und Schiffahrtsverhältnisse mit China, Bd. 4, vom September 1861 bis April 1862, fol. 79r.–83v. The report was sent to the Prussian Foreign Ministry with the accompanying letter of Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg [1815–1881], the Prussian plenipotentiary who led the diplomatic mission of the Prussian East Asian Expedition.
- 40.
Albert Berg (1864–1873) Die Preussische Expedition, vol. 4, 185–188. A detailed description of the German community in Hong Kong during this period and its development from then onwards is provided by Ricard Mak (2004) “The German Community in Nineteenth Century Hong Kong”.
- 41.
See Masataka Banno (1973) Kindai Chūgoku seiji gaikōshi 近代中国政治外交史 (Tōkyō: Tōkyō daigaku shuppankai), Chapters 5 and 6.
- 42.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 113–114; Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 86–87; and Helmuth Stoecker (1958) Deutschland und China, 50.
- 43.
Clive Parry, ed. (1969) The Consolidated Treaty Series 93: 1842 (London: Oceana Publications Inc), 325. Underlines added.
- 44.
Clive Parry (1969) The Consolidated Treaty Series 93, 327. Underlines added.
- 45.
On the process and background of this article’s inclusion, see T’ing-fu Tsiang 蒋廷黻 (1931) “The Expansion of Equal Commercial Privileges to Other Nations than the British After the Treaty of Nanking”, Chinese Social and Political Science Review 15, 422–444; Earl H. Pritchard (1942) “The Origins of the Most-Favored Nation and the Open Door Policies in China”, Far Eastern Quarterly 1:2, 161–172; Masataka Banno 坂野正高 (1970) Kindai Chugoku Gaiko-shi Kenkyu 近代中国外交史研究 (Tōkyō: Iwanami shoten), Chapter 2.
As to whether the Hamburger, for example, belonged to the “foreign countries whose subjects or citizens have hitherto traded at Canton”, they could have stated as they did, regardless of how much the previous trade had been, since there had already been an appointed Hamburg consul since 1829, though British (see Table 11.1). Regarding the Hamburg-Chinese commercial relations in the early nineteenth century, see Bernd Eberstein (1988) Hamburg—China: Geschichte einer Partnerschaft. Hamburg: Christian, 26–31; Bernd Eberstein (2008) Hamburg—Kanton 1731, 70–73.
- 46.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 121; Helmuth Stoecker (1958) Deutschland und China, 50. See, for example, the British-Chinese Treaty of the Tientsin Treaties: Clive Parry, ed. (1969) The Consolidated Treaty Series 119: 1858 (London: Oceana Publications Inc), 163–187.
- 47.
See e.g. the petition of the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce to the Hamburg City Government, dated on March 25, 1859: In Regine Mathias-Pauer and Erich Pauer, eds. (1992) Die Hansestädte und Japan, 1855–1867: Ausgewählte Dokumente (Marburg: Förderverein Marburger Japan-Reihe), 58–63.
- 48.
For more on this process, see Mariko Fukuoka (2013) Puroisen Higashi-Ajia, Chapter 1.
- 49.
Cf. The handwritten report composed by Max von Brandt in 1872, entitled “Aufsatz über die deutschen Schiffahrts-Verhältnisse in Ost-Asien, wie über die Maßnahmen, welche die allmälige [sic] Verdringung der Segelschiffe durch die Dampfschiffe in den dortigen Gewässern nothwendig machen dürften”, in Bundesarchiv (Berlin-Lichterfelde) R901–12712, Acta betr. die Handels- und Schiffahrts-Verhältnisse mit Japan, Bd. 6, vom März 1868 bis December 1873, fol. 98r.–102r. Regarding this report, see the conclusion of this chapter.
- 50.
Jacob’s report cited in footnote 39, 118: “da die Deutschen Kapitäne sie [die Chinesische Kaufleute] anständiger und besser behandeln als alle übrigen”.
- 51.
Eulenburg to the Prussian Minister for Foreign Affairs (Albrecht Graf von Bernstorff), dated December 18, 1861. In: GStAPK III. HA, MdA II, Nr. 5084, Handels- und Schiffahrtsverhältnisse mit China, Bd. 4, fol. 78.
- 52.
The report of von Brandt cited in footnote 41, fol. 82r.: “Schon seit längerer Zeit ziehen es die Chinesischen Kaufleute vor, Waaren [sic] die sie von einem Hafen nach dem anderen schicken, auf Europäische Schiffe zu verladen, da sie einerseits dadurch größere Sicherheit gegen Seeräuber und Stürme erlangen, andererseits die Ladungen versichern können. Diese ganze Habitage [?] ist fast ausschliesslich in deutschen Händen…” As von Brandt mentioned, the waters along the Chinese coast was notorious for rampant piracies at that time. See Hosea Ballou Morse (1910) The International Relations of the Chinese Empire. Vol. 1: The Period of Conflict 1834–1860 (London: Longmans, Green), Chapter 15.
- 53.
Hosea Ballou Morse (1910) The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 294; Hoshi Ayao 星斌夫 (1971) Dai-Unga: Chūgoku no Sōun 大運河-中国の漕運 (Tōkyō: Kondō Shuppansha). I owe this information to Prof. Susumu Murao.
- 54.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 99–112; Karin Bartsch (1965) “Hamburgs Handelsbeziehungen mit China und Britisch Ostindien, 1842–1867” (PhD thesis, University of Hamburg), 129–147; Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 66–67; Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr”, 21–39, 463–471; and Kurt Wahl (1901) “Die niederländische Handelspolitik”.
- 55.
Jonathan Goldstein (1978) Philadelphia and the China Trade 1682–1846: Commercial, Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects (London: The Pennsylvania State University Press), 24–25; Johann N. Gloyer [1781–1841] (1819) Darstellung des Englisch-Ostindischen Compagnie- und Privathandels: In Bezug auf die Mittel, die Dänische Niederlassung in Ostindien, Trankebar, in Aufnahme zu bringen, und auf eine, den Hansestädten und den Amerikanern dahin zu eröffnende Handelsfreyheit (Altona: J. F. Hammerich). The stipulation in the question is included in the thirteenth article of the Jay Treaty (Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between Great Britain and the USA, signed in London, 19. November 1794). See Clive Parry, ed. (1969) The Consolidated Treaty Series 52: 1793–1795 (London: Oceana Publications Inc), 255–256.
Henry Wheaton, the writer of the renowned “Elements of the International Law”, records that, since the East Indian trade remained within the charter of the British East India Company, and thus was also kept closed to British private merchants after the Jay Treaty, cases occurred afterwards where a native British subject tried to become a citizen of the USA in order to be entitled to those advantages enjoyed by Americans. See Henry Wheaton [1785–1848] (1964) Elements of International Law, reproduced and edited by Richard H. Dana Jr., in 1866, notes by George G. Wilson (New York and London: Oceana Publications Inc. and Wildy & Sons Ltd. [Reprint of 1836]), 119.
- 56.
Leonard Blussé (2008) Visible Cities, 60–66.
- 57.
Same as footnote 57.
- 58.
Ernst Baasch (1897) “Die Anfänge des modernen Verkehrs”, 108–109, 111; Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 99–102; Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr”, 177–192, 470–471; Kurt Wahl (1901) “Die niederländische Handelspolitik”, 10ff. Regarding the political process towards the abolition of the British Navigation Acts, see Robert L. Schuyler (1945) The Fall of the Old Colonial System: A Study in British Free Trade 1770–1870 (London, New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press), Chapter 5.
- 59.
Precisely speaking, it was only the equal treatment of the flag and the freedom of the coastal trade from the five treaty ports to Hong Kong (namely, (1) and a part of (4)) that were referred to or guaranteed in the British-Chinese treaties of 1842–1843 for the sake of foreign nations; Still, it can be recognized from a series of German records that the equality of import and export duties and the whole freedom of the coastal trade between the Chinese open ports ((2), (3) and (4)) were enjoyed de facto by German and other Western nations. See in this regard Mariko Fukuoka (2013) Puroisen Higashi-Ajia, 46–59, 287–293.
- 60.
Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 94–102; See also Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr”, 182–183.
- 61.
Adalbert Korff (1922) “Der direkte deutsch-chinesische Schiffahrtsverkehr”, 94–102; Otto-Ernst Krawehl (1977) “Hamburgs Schiffs- und Warenverkehr”, 469–470; Helmuth Stoecker (1958) Deutschland und China, 46–47; See also Hermann Wätjen (1923) “Der Fremdhandel in China nach dem Opiumkrieg”, in Bernhard Harms (ed.), Wirtschaftliches Archiv: Zeitschrift des Instituts für Weltwirtschaft und Seeverkehr an der Universität Kiel, vol. 19, 1–10.
- 62.
Shigeru Akita 秋田茂 (2008) “Igirisu Teikoku to Kindaii Asia, Nihon イギリス帝国と近代アジア、日本”, in Kaitoku-do kinenkai 懐徳堂記念会 (ed.), Sekaishi wo kaki-naosu, Nihonshi wo kaki-naosu 世界史を書き直す 日本史を書き直す (Ōsaka: Izumi shoin), 191–232; see Patrick K. O’Brien and Geoffrey A. Pigman (1992) “Free Trade, British Hegemony and the International Economic Order in the Nineteenth Century”, Review of International Studies 18.2, 89–113.
- 63.
Philipp zu Eulenburg-Hertefeld [1820–1889] (1901), ed. Ostasien 1860–1862 in Briefen des Grafen Fritz zu Eulenburg (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn-Königliche Hofbuchhandlung), 1–46. They once gathered at Singapore, after having travelled by rail and ship from Berlin through Trieste, Egypt and the Indian Ocean, and at Singapore they joined with the Prussian squadron to go to their first destination in Japan.
- 64.
Casper Brennwald [1838–1899] (2008) “The Diary of Brennwald: Files 1 to 3 from 10 October 1862 to 5 December 1867” (Yokohama: No Publisher).
- 65.
Descriptions of The Diary of Brennwald on 1 December 1865, 15–17 May 1866, 7 July 1866 (File 2 and 3 of 16 December 1863 to 5 December 1867).
- 66.
Max von Brandt (1872) “Aufsatz über die deutschen Schiffahrts-Verhältnisse in Ost-Asien, …” (see footnote 51).
- 67.
Walter Kresse (1972) Die Fahrgebiete der Hamburger Handelsflotte 1824–188 (Hamburg: Lütke & Wulff, Buchdruckerei und Verlag), 187.
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Fukuoka, M. (2019). German Merchants in the Indian Ocean World: From Early Modern Paralysis to Modern Animation. In: Schottenhammer, A. (eds) Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97667-9_11
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97667-9_11
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Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
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Online ISBN: 978-3-319-97667-9
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