Abstract
In this chapter the main question of the book is presented—why do actors perceive a certain medicine as effective? This question was born out of the observation that health problems—as well as the knowledge and experience of illness and the use of medicines—were often-discussed topics among members of the family, neighbours and colleagues. The theme of the book is presented through the story of 6-year-old Wanglen, who was treated in a context of medical pluralism, in her case biomedicine and Mapuche healing practices. Her case highlights a number of relevant themes and problems that are central to this book, first and foremost the complex reality of medical pluralism, of which both patients and practitioners form part. Moreover, the methodological and analytical framework is presented, more specifically the socio-somatic model and the theory of embodiment, which serve to link Wanglen’s case with a socio-political reality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
The names of the medical practitioners and the girl Wanglen have not been altered, but names given for other patients are pseudonyms.
- 3.
According to Lawrence Kirmayer, the term “medically unexplained symptoms” names a social and clinical predicament, not a specific disorder. He furthers argues that many cultural traditions provide socio-somatic theories, which link social conditions with physical symptoms and illnesses (Kirmayer 2004: 663).
- 4.
This figure is from the city of Puerto Savedraa (Diario Austral 5 July 2001).
- 5.
Since my fieldwork, the Mapuche pharmacy has developed into a chain with a nation-wide presence.
- 6.
The director explained that a Chilean anthropologist had recorded the work of machis (including Sebastian) and afterwards published extracts of conversations and prayers without having asked for permission. The board of directors considered suing her for cultural theft and violation of intellectual property rights. I also heard the story from the anthropologist in question, who insisted that all had consented, but had changed their minds after the book was published.
- 7.
According to Freud, traumatic memories of the past can also return in peculiar and “uncanny” ways. As he writes, “the uncanny is in reality nothing new or alien, but something which is familiar and old-established in the mind and which has become alienated from it only through the process of repression” (Freud 1955: 240). One example is the superstition of the evil eye, the dread that whoever possesses something that is valuable and fragile is susceptible to the envy of others. Another example is the fear that even an intention can do harm, where certain signs are seen as proof that an intention has the potency to damage. The analysis of “the uncanny” is, in the Freudian universe, connected to an animistic concept of the world which involves, among other things, a view of it as inhabited by the spirits of human beings, by the belief in the omnipotence of thoughts and the attribution of “magical power” to outside persons and things, the so-called mana.
- 8.
This ambivalence is symbolized by the hero of the Chilean nation-state, the liberator Bernardo O’Higgens. According to the historical sources, O’Higgens was the son of a Peruvian governor and a woman of unknown origin, although apparently indigenous. He is typical of the ambivalence of Chilean identity history: his origins are problematic as a result of being a racial mixture and an orphan, yet this did not prevent his becoming a national hero (Montecino 1996: 143).
- 9.
This viewpoint is, in present-day Chile, especially promoted by the historian Sergio Villalobos, who was considered the country’s national historian during the military regime. Among the practices which he associates with the Mapuche culture are polygamy, homosexuality and sacrifice (“El Mercurio”, May 14, 2000).
- 10.
Discussion of the subject, however, had recently started due to a report published in October 2003 entitled “Informe de la Comisión Verdad Histórica y Nuevo Trato”. Ministerio del Interior de Chile (2003).
- 11.
The ontological turn has in recent years made a valuable contribution to the study of shamanism (de Castro 2004) and materiality (Henare et al. 2007; Petersen 2011). Viviero de Castro has proposed the term “perspectivism”, which inverts the Western distinction between nature (as a given) and culture (as a variable) and instead focuses on the distinctions between humans and non-humans. In the anthology Thinking Through Things (Henare et al. 2007), it is argued that we should take things seriously in and of themselves. It is proposed that objects and practices in different cultural and social settings should be explored not just as artefacts upon which people bestow meaning by virtue of use, but as ontologically important in their own right. The authors argue, furthermore, that we need to withdraw from the assumption that humans live in the same “world”, because different people and cultural and social groups represent and understand the world in various ways. Rather, we need to acknowledge that humans inhabit not a single but numerous “worlds” and “treat meaning and thing as an identity” (Henare et al. 2007: 4). I sympathize with the approach of treating a medical reality as an ontology; however, I regard it as emerging from the engagement with reality, and therefore sensitive to, and part of parcel of, social and political dynamics (see Kristensen 2015).
- 12.
- 13.
In 1991 the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) recognized the special problem of diagnosis in a culturally diverse population and supported the formation of a group for culture and diagnosis, which included American anthropologists and psychiatrists. Its general goal was to suggest how to make culture more specific to DSM-IV (Lewis-Fernandéz 1996: 133). In the fourth edition of DSM, it is noted that culture-bound syndromes are “generally limited to specific societies or culture areas and are localized, folk, diagnostic categories”. The manual further contains two appendices relevant for the issue of culture: (1) a cultural formulation designed to assist the clinician in evaluating and reporting the impact of the individual’s cultural context; and (2) an appendix with 27 so-called culture-bound syndromes, among these some with exotic names (Lewis-Fernandéz 1996; Johansen 2006), such as ghost sickness, koro and amok. The commission felt that its serious and dedicated work towards integrating culture into the manual had been completely distorted. Kleinman dismissed the appendix as “little more than a sop thrown to cultural psychiatrists and psychiatric anthropologists” (Good 1997). These critiques led to changes in the fifth edition of DSM, which included a “Cultural Formulation Interview” (CFI) which was intended to elicit information about the socio-cultural context in which difficulties are experienced. In addition, the notion of culture-bound syndromes had been addressed by three concepts: (1) cultural syndromes: “clusters of symptoms and attributions that tend to co-occur among individuals in specific cultural groups, communities, or contexts … that are recognized locally as coherent patterns of experience” (ibid.: 758); (2) cultural idioms of distress: “ways of expressing distress that may not involve specific symptoms or syndromes, but that provide collective, shared ways of experiencing and talking about personal or social concerns” (ibid.: 758); and (3) cultural explanations of distress or perceived causes: “labels, attributions, or features of an explanatory model that indicate culturally recognized meaning or etiology for symptoms, illness, or distress” (ibid.: 758) (see Panter-Brick and Eggerman 2017).
- 14.
The term “global mental health” (GMH) was coined in 2001. It is a movement that consists of stakeholders advocating for equity in mental health across the globe. The emergence of GMH has been linked to developments in the field of global health, which has been defined as “the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide”. GMH has been a target of criticism due to its biomedical domination (Patel 2012; Panter-Brick and Eggerman 2017).
- 15.
The concept of “second-world reality” is inspired by Nicolas Argenti’s work on performance and violence in Cameroon’s Bamenda Grassfields, where he argues that children and adults use masquerades to negotiate power relations in a meta-reality, which is useful because it relates to everyday lived reality. Therefore, he argues that the performances are not unreal in the Freudian sense as a fantasy removed from reality, but are (sur)real engagements with a socio-political environment.
References
Alexander, J., et al. 2004. Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Antze, Paul. 1996. Telling Stories, Making Selves: Memory and Identity in Multiple Personality Disorder. In: Paul Antze & Michael Lambek (eds.), Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory. New York: Routledge, pp. 3–25.
Argenti, Nicolas. 1998. Air Youth: Performance, Violence and the State in Cameroon. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4(4): 753–782.
Argenti, Nicolas. 2001. Kesum-body and the Places of the Gods: The Politics of Children’s Masking and Second-world Realities in Oku (Cameroon). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 7(1): 67–94.
Argenti, Nicolas & Katharina Schramm. 2006. Violence and Memory. Position paper presented at EASA Conference.
Bacigalupo, Ana Mariella. 2001. La Voz del Kultrun en la Modernidad: Tradicion y Cambio en la Terapeutica de Siete Machi Mapuche. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Catolica de Chile.
Bacigalupo, Ana Mariella. 2007. Thunder Shaman. Making History with Mapuche Spirits in Chile and Patagonia. Texas: University of Texas Press.
Bacigalupo, Ana Mariella. 2016a. Shamans of the Foye Tree. Gender, Power, and Healing among Chilean Mapuche. Texas: University of Texas Press.
Bacigalupo, Ana Mariella. 2016b. The Paradox of Disremembering the Dead: Ritual, Memory, and Embodied Historicity in Mapuche Shamanic Personhood. Anthropology and Humanism 41.
Baer, Hans, Merrill Singer & Ida Susser. 1995. What is Medical Anthropology About? In: Hans Baer & Merrill Singer (eds.), Medical Anthropology and the World System: A Critical Perspective. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey, pp. 1–37.
Baer, Roberta, et al. 2003. A Cross-Cultural Approach to the Study of the Folk Illness Nervios. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 27: 315–337.
Beneduce, R. 2016. Traumatic pasts and the historical imagination: symptoms of loss, postcolonial suffering, and counter-memories among African migrants. Transcultural psychiatry, 53(3), pp. 261–285.
Connerton, Paul. 1989. How Societies Remember. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crandon-Malamud, Libbet. 1983. Why Susto. Ethnology. An International Journal of Cultural and Social Anthropology XXII: 153–169.
Crandon-Malamud, Libbet. 1986. Medical Dialogue and the Political Economy of Medical Pluralism: a Case from Rural Highland Bolivia. American Ethnologist 13(3): 463–477.
Crandon-Malamud, Libbet. 1991. From the Fat of our Souls: Social Change, Political Process, and Medical Pluralism in Bolivia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Crandon-Malamud, Libbet. 2003. Changing Times and Changing Symptoms: the Effects of Modernization of Mestizo Medicine in Rural Bolivia (the Case of Two Mestizo Sisters). In: Joan D. Koss-Chioino, Thomas Leatherman & Christine Greenway (eds.), Medical Pluralism in the Andes. Psychology Press, pp. 27–42.
Crapanzano, Vincent. 2004. Imaginative Horizons: An Essay in Literary-philosophical Anthropology. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Csordas, Thomas. 1988. Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology. Ethos 18(1): 5–47. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/640395.
Csordas, Thomas. 1994a. The Sacred Self: A Cultural Phenomenology of Charismatic Healing. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Csordas, Thomas. 1994b. Introduction: The Body as Representation and Being-in-the-world. In: Thomas Csordas (ed.), Embodiment and Experience: The Existential Ground of Culture and Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–27.
Csordas, Thomas. 1999. The Body’s Career in Anthropology. In: Henrietta Moore (ed.), Anthropological Theory Today. Cambridge: Polity Press, pp. 193–205.
Csordas, Thomas. 2002 (1988). Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology. In: Body/Meaning/Healing. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 58–88.
De Castro, E.V. 1998. Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute: 469–488.
De Castro, E.V. 2004. Exchanging Perspectives: The Transformation of Objects into Subjects in Amerindian Ontologies. Common Knowledge 10(3): 463–484.
Desjarlais, R. 1992. Body and emotion: The aesthetics of illness and healing in the Nepal Himalayas. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Desjarlais, R. & C. Jason Throop. 2011. Phenomenological approaches in anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 40: 87–102.
Douglas, Mary. 1970. Natural Symbols. Middlesex: Penguin Books.
Durkheim, Emile. 1964. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. London: Alden.
Freud, Sigmund. 1955 (1919). The ‘Uncanny’ [Das unheimliche]. From Standard Edition, Vol. XVII, trans. James Strachey. London: Hogarth Press, pp. 217–256.
Gluckman, M. 1958. Analysis of a Social Situation in Modern Zululand. The Rhodes-Livingstone papers, number twenty-eight. New York: Manchester University Press.
Gluckman, M. 2006. Ethnographic Data in British Social Anthropology. In: T.M.S. Evens & Don Handelman (eds.), The Manchester School: Practice and Ethnographic Praxis in Anthropology. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, pp. 13–25.
Good, Byron J. 1997. Studying Mental Illness in Context: Local, Global, or Universal? Ethos 25(2): 230–248.
Guarnaccia, Peter. 1993. Ataques de Nervios in Puerto Rico: Culture-Bound Syndromes or Popular Illness. Medical Anthropology 15: 157–1965.
Guarnaccia, Peter. 2003. Editorial. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 27: 249–257.
Hacking, Ian. 1995. Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Hacking, Ian. 1996. Memory Sciences, Memory Politics. In: Paul Antze & Michael Lambek (eds.), Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory. New York: Routledge, pp. 67–89.
Halbwachs, Maurice. 1992. On Collective Memory. London: University of Chicago Press.
Han, Clara. 2004. The Work of Indebtedness: The Traumatic Present of Late Capitalist Chile. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 28(2): 169–187.
Han, Clara. 2012. Life in Debt. Times of Care and Violence in Neoliberal Chile. London: University of California Press.
Henare, Amiria, Martin Holbraad & Sari Wastell. 2007. Introduction. In: A. Henare, M. Holbraad & S. Wastell (eds.), Thinking through Things: Theorising Artefact Ethnographically. London: Routledge, pp. 1–32.
Janzen, John. 1978. The Quest for Therapy: Medical Pluralism in Lower Zaire. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
Janzen, John. 2002. The Social Fabric of Health: An Introduction to Medical Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Johannessen, Helle. 2005. Body and Self in Medical Pluralism. In: Helle Johanessen & Imre Lázár (eds.), Multiple Medical Realities: Patients and Healers in Biomedical, Alternative and Traditional Medicine. Oxford and New York: Berghahn, pp. 1–21.
Johansen, Katrine Schepelern. 2006. Kultur og Psykiatri: En Antropologi om Transkulturel Psykiatri på Danske Hospitaler. Ph.D.- afhandling. København: Institut for Antropologi og Sct. Hans Hospital.
Kaiser, B.N., E.E. Haroz, B.A. Kohrt, P.A. Bolton, J.K. Bass & D.E. Hinton 2015. “Thinking too much”: A systematic review of a common idiom of distress. Social Science & Medicine 147: 170–183.
Kapferer, Bruce. 1987. The Anthropology of Max Gluckman. Social Analysis 22: 3–21.
Kapferer, Bruce. 1997. The Feast of the Sorcerer. Practices of Consciousness and Power. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Kapferer, Bruce. 2003. Sorcery, Modernity and the Constitutive Imaginary: Hybridising Continuities. In: Bruce Kapferer (ed.), Beyond Rationalism: Rethinking Magic, Witchcraft and Sorcery. London and New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 105–128.
Kapferer, Bruce. 2006. Situations, Crisis, and the Anthropology of the Concrete: The Contribution of Max Gluckman. In: T.M.S. & Don Handelman (eds.), The Manchester School: Practice and Ethnographic Praxis in Anthropology. Oxford and New York, pp. 118–159.
Kelly, José Antonio. 2011. State Healthcare and Yanomamo Transformation. A symmetrical Ethnography: Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Kempny, Marian. 2006. History of the Manchester “School” and the Extended-Case Method. Social Analysis 49(3): 144–165.
Kirmayer, Lawrence. 2004. Explaining Medically Unexplained Symptoms. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49(10): 663–672.
Kirmayer, Lawrence & Allan Young. 1998. Culture and Somatization: Clinical, Epidemiological, and Ethnographic Perspective. Psychosomatic Medicine 60(4): 420–431.
Kirmayer, Lawrence & Noman Sartorius. 2007. Cultural Models and Somatic Syndromes. Psychosomatic Medicines 69: 832–840.
Kleinman, Arthur. 1986. Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kleinman, Arthur. 1994. How Bodies Remember: Social Memory and Bodily Experience of Criticism, Resistance and Delegitimation following China’s Cultural Revolution. New Literary History 25(3), 25th Anniversary Issue: 707–723.
Kleinman, Arthur & Anne E. Becker. 1998. “Sociosomatics”: The Contributions of Anthropology to Psychosomatic Medicine. Journal of the American Psychosomatic Society 60(4): 389–394.
Kohrt, B.A., D.J. Hruschka, H.E. Kohrt, N.L. Panebianco & G. Tsagaankhuu 2004. Distribution of distress in post-socialist Mongolia: a cultural epidemiology of yadargaa. Social Science & Medicine 58(3): 471–485.
Kristensen Benedikte, Møller. 2015. Returning to the Forest: Shamanism, Landscape and History among the Duha of Northern Mongolia. PhD thesis University of Copenhagen.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 2000 (1949). The Effectiveness of Symbols. In: Roland Littlewood & Simon Dein (eds.), Cultural Psychiatry and Medical Anthropology: An Introduction and Reader. London and New Brunswick: The Athlone Press, pp. 162–177.
Lewis-Fernandéz, R. 1996. Cultural Formulation of Psychiatric Diagnosis: Introduction. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 20: 133–144.
Littlewood, Roland & Simon Dein (eds.). 2000. Introduction. In: Roland Littlewood & Simon Dein (eds.), Cultural Psychiatry and Medical Anthropology: An Introduction and Reader. London and New Brunswick: The Athlone Press, pp. 1–34.
Lock, Margaret. 1993. Cultivating the Body: Anthropological and Epistemologies of Bodily Practices and Knowledge. Annual Review of Anthropology. 1993: 133–155.
Lock, Margaret & Nancy Scheper-Hughes. 1990. A Critical-Interpretive Approach in Medical Anthropology: Rituals and Routines of Discipline and Dissent. In: Thomas M. Johnson and Carolyn Fishel Sargent (eds.), Medical Anthropology, Contemporary Theory and Method. Westport: Praeger Publishers, pp. 47–73.
Lock, Margaret & Nancy Scheper-Hughes. 1996. A Critical-Interpretive Approach in Medical Anthropology: Rituals and Routines of Discipline and Dissent. In: Carolyn Fishel Sargent and Thomas M. Johnson (eds.), Medical Anthropology, Contemporary Theory and Method. Westport: Praeger Publishers, Rev. ed., pp. 41–70.
Low, Setha. 1988. Medical Practice in Response to a Folk Illness: The Diagnosis and Treatment of Nervios in Costa Rica. In: M. Lock & D.R. Gordon (eds.), Biomedicine Examined. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 415–438.
Mai, F. 2004. Somatization disorder: a practical review. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49(10): 652–662.
Marcus, George. 1995. Ethnography in/Of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography. Annual Reviews 24: 95–117.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. 1962. Phenomenology of Perception. London and New York: Routledge.
Miles, Ann & Thomas Leatherman. 2003. Perspectives on Medical Anthropology in the Andes. In: Joan D. Koss-Chioino, Thomas Leatherman & Christine Greenway (eds.), Medical Pluralism in the Andes. Psychology Press, pp. 3–16.
Ministerio del Interior de Chile. 2003. Decreto n.° 19: Comisión Verdad y Nuevo Trato, Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.
Montecino, Sonia. 1996. Madres y Huachos: Alegorías del Mestizaje Chileno. Santiago: Biblioteca Claves de Chile. Editorial Sudamericana.
Moulian, Tomás. 1997. Anatomía de un Mito. Arcis Universidad: LOM Ediciones, Serie Punto de Fga. Coleccion sin Norte.
Mysik, Avis. 1998. Susto: An Illness of the Poor. Dialectical Anthropology 23: 187–202.
Nichter, Mark. 1981. Idioms of Distress: Alternatives in the Expression of Psychosocial Distress: A Case Study from South India. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 5: 379–408.
Nichter, Mark & Margaret Lock (eds.). 2002. Introduction: from Documenting Medical Pluralism to Critical Interpretations of Globalized Health Knowledge, Policies and Practices. In: Mark Nichter & Margaret Lock (eds.), New Horizons in Medical Anthropology, pp. 1–35.
Panter-Brick, C. & Eggerman, M. 2017. Anthropology and Global Mental Health: Depth, Breadth, and Relevance. In: White R., Jain S., Orr D. & Read U. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Sociocultural Perspectives on Global Mental Health. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Patel, V. 2012. Global mental health: from science to action. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 20(1): 6–12.
Petersen, Morten Axel. 2011. Not quite Shamans. Spirit Worlds and Political Lives in Northern Mongolia. New York: Cornell Press.
Pizza, Giovianni. 2005. Saperi, partiche e politiche del corpo. Roma: Carocci.
Quaranta, Ivo. 2001. Contextualising the Body: Anthropology, Biomedicine and Medical Anthropology. Rivista Della Societá Italiana Di Antropología Medica 11–12: 155–171.
Rubel, Arthur, O’Nell Carl & Rolando Collado-Ardón. 1984. Susto: A Folk Illness. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Scheper-Hughes, N. 1993. Death without weeping: The violence of everyday life in Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Scheper-Hughes, N. 1994. Embodied Knowledge: Thinking with the Body in Critical Medical Anthropology. In: Robert Borofsky (ed.), Assessing Cultural Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 229–241.
Scheper-Hughes, Nancy & Margaret Lock. 1987. The Mindful Body: A Prolegomenon to Future Work in Medical Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 1(1): 6–41.
Simons, Ronald & Charles Hughes (eds.). 1985. The Culture-Bound Syndromes: Folk Illnesses of Psychiatric and Anthropological Interest. Dordrecth: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Stern, Steve. 2006. Remembering Pinochet’s Chile: On the Eve of London 1998. Book One of the Trilogy: The Memory Box of Pinochet’s Chile. Durham: Duke University Press.
Taussig, Michael. 1980. The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
Taussig, Michael. 1987. Shamanism, Colonialism and the Wild Man. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Taussig, Michael. 1993. Mimesis and Alterity. A Particular History of the Senses. New York: Routledge.
Taussig, Michael. 1999. Defacement. Public Secrecy and the Labor of the Negative. Stanford: Sanford University Press.
Turner, Brian. 1992. Regulating Bodies: Essays in Medical Sociology. London and New York: Routledge.
Turner, Brian. 1996. The Body and Society: Explorations in Social Theory. London: Sage Publications.
Turner, Victor. 1957. Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Turner, Victor. 1967. Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Van Velsen, J. 1967. The Extended-case Method and Situational Analysis. In: A.L. Epstein (ed.), The Craft of Social Anthropology. London: Tavistock, pp. 129–149.
Yap, P.M. 2001 (1951). Mental Diseases Peculiar to Certain Culture: a Survey of Comparative Psychiatry. In: Roland Littlewood & Simon Dein (eds.), Cultural Psychiatry and Medical Anthropology: An Introduction and Reader. London and New Brunswick: The Athlone Press, pp. 179–198.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kristensen, D.B. (2019). Illness Stories, Medical Choices and Socio-Political Process. In: Patients, Doctors and Healers. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97031-8_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97031-8_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97030-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-97031-8
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)