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The Ideological Backgrounds of Axis Foreign Policies

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Japan, Italy and the Road to the Tripartite Alliance

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Abstract

This chapter explores the ideological backgrounds of foreign policy in Japan and Italy. Both foreign ministries mobilized whatever ideology they found useful in legitimizing their attempts to accomplish regional hegemony. Fascism, racism and anti-communism are three important factors to be considered in characterizing the foreign policies of ultra-nationalist Japan and fascist Italy in the 1930s. Yet upon examination, fascism and racism, at the least, precluded their building better international relationships. The only effective ideology that connected both powers was a strong antipathy to communism, and in the course of their anti-communist liaison, they multiplied enemies from the League of Nations to the Western powers.

The original version of this chapter was revised: Belated corrections have been incorporated. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96223-8_9

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The recent books in English on Japanese intellectuals of that period do not mention the intercourse between them and diplomats. Harry Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000). David Williams, Defending Japan’s Pacific War: The Kyoto School Philosophers and post-White Power (London: Routledge Curzon, 2004). Oliviero Frattolio, Interwar Japan beyond the West (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012). The latest Japanese monographs on foreign policy neglect the elements of ideology, culture and public opinion. Masaaki Miyata, Eibei Sekai Chitsujo to Higashi-Ajia niokeru Nihon: Chugoku womeguru Kyocho to Sokoku (Tokyo: Kinseisha, 2014). Yuichi Sasaki, Teikoku Nihon no Gaiko 1894–1922: Naze Hanto wa Kakudai Shitanoka (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2017). Even the book on cultural diplomacy emphasizes more bureaucratic aspects than intellectual ones. Fumio Kumamoto, Taisen Kanki no Tai-Chugoku Bunka Gaiko: Gaimusho Kiroku nimiru Seisaku Kettei-Katei (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2013). The discrepancy between diplomatic and intellectual history is still large.

  2. 2.

    Ryoichi Tobe, Gaimusho Kakushin-ha: Sekai Shin-Chitsujo no Gen’ei (Tokyo: Chuko-Shinsho, 2010), pp. 105, 110–113, 147–150, 268, 280–283. Toshio Shiratori, Tatakahi no Jidai (Tokyo: Daiichi Shobo, 1941), pp. 32, 74.

  3. 3.

    Tobe, op. cit., pp. 3–6, 11–19, 67–73, 105–107. Matsuoka Yosuke Denki Kankokai, ed., Matsuoka Yosuke: Sono Hito to Shogai (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1974), p. 129. Brooks, op. cit., pp. 39, 175.

  4. 4.

    Luca De Caprariis, “‘Fascism for Export’? The Rise and Eclipse of the Fasci Italiani all’Estero,” Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 35 (2000), 156, 166, 167–169, 172, 173, 178. Matteo Pretelli, Il fascismo e gli italiani all’estero (Bologna: CLUEB, 2010), pp. 34, 103–104. Emilio Gentile, “La politica estera del partito fascista. Ideologia e organizzazione dei Fasci italiani all’esetro (1920–1930),” Storia contemporanea, Vol. XXVI, No. 6 (1995), 935. Giampiero Carocci, La politica estera dell’Italia fascista (1925–1928) (Bari: Laterza, 1969), p. 28. The National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA), FO371/14159, W1094/1094/36 (1929/1/31). TNA, FO371/14384, C172/172/19 (1929/12/20). TNA, FO371/15232, C278/278/19 (1931/1/3).

  5. 5.

    Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Roma (hereafter ACS), Segretaria Particolare del Duce, Carteggio Riservato (hereafter SPDCR), B37, F Bastianini, s.n., s.d., Lo sfacciato nepotismo di S. Ecc. Bastianini. The latest books in English on fascist intellectuals also did not throw light on their cultural relationship with the Italian Foreign Ministry. Benjamin G. Martin, The Nazi-Fascist New Order for European Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016). A. James Gregor, Mussolini’s Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). Recent works focus more on culture, such as images, arts and literature, than on foreign policy. Riccardo Bottoni (A cura di), L’Impero fascista: Italia ed Etiopia (1935–1941) (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2008). Patrizia Palumbo, ed., A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-unification to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). The following book covers the comparative literature of Japanese writers on the Sino-Japanese War and Italian writers on the Ethiopian War. Ken Ishida, Fashisuto no Senso: Sekaishiteki Bummyaku de Yomu Echiopia Senso (Tokyo: Chikura Shobo, 2011), pp. 143–200.

  6. 6.

    Harry Fornari, Mussolini’s Gadfly: Roberto Farinacci (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971), pp. 177, 179–186. Ciano, Diario, p. 146. Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Roma (hereafter ASMAE), Fondo Gabinetto, Carte Lancelotti, F16–27, B24, F2, Note dell’Informazione diplomatica (17/2/1938). Giuseppe Bottai, Diario, 1935–1944, ed. Giordano Bruno Guerri (Milano: Rizzoli, 1983), p. 128. Meir Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews: German-Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy, 1922–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 397.

  7. 7.

    Even though Konoe , Matsuoka , Mussolini , and Ciano made ideological declarations during the time of aggressive expansion, their idea of establishing regional hegemony was too megalomaniac to materialize. Frattollio, op. cit., pp. 14, 24, 27. Aristotle A. Kallis, Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945 (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 118, 133, 150, 153–154.

  8. 8.

    Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics, expanded ed. by Ivan Morris (London: Oxford University Press, c1963, 1969), p. 16. Cf. Ibid., pp. 19–20, 353–354, 360. Hirota Koki Denki Kankokai, ed., Hirota Koki (hereafter Hirota) (1966; rpt. Fukuoka: Ashi Shobo, 1992), pp. 8–10. Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (New York: Vintage Books, c1982, 1983), p. 35. R.J.B. Bosworth, Mussolini (London: Arnold, 2002), pp. 8, 122.

  9. 9.

    ASMAE, Serie Affari Politici 1931–1945 (hereafter AP), Giappone, B3, F5, N. 91/58 (2/2/1932).

  10. 10.

    ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B3, F5, N. 373/214 (25/4/1932).

  11. 11.

    Even in 1937, the year when the Tripartite Anti-Comintern Pact was concluded, the word fascio was considered alien, evil and prejudicial to Japanese politics. Kumao Harada, Saionji-ko to Seikyoku, Vol. 6, pp. 133, 195, 240.

  12. 12.

    Natsumi Takeuchi, ed., Matsuoka Zenken Dai-Enzetsu-shu (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1933), p. 28.

  13. 13.

    Tokyo Nichi-Nichi, 12/1/1933. ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B5, F1, Rapporti politici (12/1/1933). Cf. David J. Lu, Agony of Choice: Matsuoka Yosuke and the Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1880–1940 (Lanham, ML: Lexington Books, 2002), pp. 84–85, 88. Matsuoka also met German Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath in November 1932 on the way to Geneva. Neurath noted that Matsuoka was very energetic and stood out among other Japanese who “spoke in the oriental roundabout way.” Politisches Archiv, Auswärtigen Amt (hereafter PAAA), R28553, RM 1158 (10/11/1932).

  14. 14.

    Galeazzo Ciano , Diario 1937–1943 (hereafter Ciano, Diario), a cura di Renzo De Felice (Milano: Rizzoli, 1980), p. 47.

  15. 15.

    Yasuo Nakano, Seijika Nakano Seigo, Vol. 2 (Tokyo: Shinkokaku Shoten, 1971), pp. 285–287. Nakano committed suicide after a severe interrogation by military police because of his maneuvering against the Tojo government in 1943.

  16. 16.

    ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B3, F1, N. 438/251 (12/5/1932).

  17. 17.

    ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B13, F1, N. 496/212 (2/7/1936).

  18. 18.

    ASMAE, AP, Cina, B11, Telesp. 79 (5/2/1932); Telesp. 73 (7/2/1932). Ciano was chairperson of the Committee of Representatives at Shanghai and sent reports on the Shanghai Incident in February 1932, criticizing Japan’s unlawful military operation and reign of terror. Ibid., B10, Cmd. 4040, Miscellaneous No. 5 (1932), League of Nations Correspondence and Resolutions respecting Events in Shanghai and Neighbourhood, Feb.–Mar. 1932.

  19. 19.

    The spelling of Chinese names will be in accordance with those of Western documents of the 1930s.

  20. 20.

    ASMAE, AP, Cina, B2, F1, Telesp. 207244 (1931/2/28). Giorgio Borsa, “Tentativi di penetrazione dell’Italia fascista in Cina: 1932–1937,” Il Politico, Vol. 44 (1979), 414–415. Koichi Nomura, Shokaiseki to Motakuto (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1997), pp. 190–191.

  21. 21.

    John P. Fox, Germany and the Far Eastern Crisis, 1931–1938 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 4–5.

  22. 22.

    TNA, GFM33/4811, M336/M014490-014495 (2/3/1934).

  23. 23.

    Fox, op. cit., pp. 5–6. TNA, GFM33/4811, M336/M014496-014504 (29/3/1934).

  24. 24.

    Benito Mussolini, Opera omnia di Benito Mussolini (hereafter O. O.), a cura di Edoardo e Duilio Susmel, Vol. XXIX (Firenze: La Fenice, 1959), p. 1.

  25. 25.

    Ibid.

  26. 26.

    Gaetano Salvemini, Prelude to World War II (London: Gollancz, 1953), p. 281. See also The Times, 21/1/1927.

  27. 27.

    Naotake Sato, Kaiko Hachijunen (Tokyo: Jiji Tsushinsha, 1963), pp. 289–290.

  28. 28.

    Akten zur Deutschen Auswärtigen Politik 1918–1945 (hereafter ADAP), C-VI (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), Nrn. 250, 294. Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers (hereafter FRUS), 1937-III (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 84, 100. The following comment of the American Ambassador to Japan, Joseph Grew , might be pertinent: “It would be as absurd to brand all anti-fascist states as ‘communist’ states as to include all dictatorships or states where the military party is in the supremacy as ‘fascist’ states.” Ibid., p. 614.

  29. 29.

    Yotaro Sugimura, Kokusai Gaiko Roku (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1933), pp. 192–195, 202, 215.

  30. 30.

    Shigeru Yoshida, Yoshida Shigeru Shokan (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1994), p. 631.

  31. 31.

    Japanese Foreign Ministry Archives, Tokyo (hereafter JFMA), A. 2. 0. 0. X1, Shigemitsu Taishi no Oshu Houkoku, “Oshu no Seikyoku Kore ni Taisuru Teikoku no Chii” (1/3/1937). Takeda, op. cit, pp. 117–118. Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 1: Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Torino: Einaudi, 1974), p. 339.

  32. 32.

    Cf. Klaus Antoni, “Karagokoro: Opposing the ‘Chinese Spirit’: On the Nativistic Roots of Japanese Fascism,” in E. Bruce Reynolds, ed., Japan in the Fascist Era (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 62–63.

  33. 33.

    A more detailed analysis of racism appears in the following works. Ken Ishida, “Racisms Compared: Fascist Italy and Ultra-Nationalist Japan,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2002), 380–391. Paul Brooker, The Faces of Fraternalism: Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 90, 210. Martin, op. cit., p. 171. MacGregor Knox, Common Destiny: Dictatorship, Foreign Policy, and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 63–66, 70–72. Kallis, op. cit., pp. 42–52.

  34. 34.

    See, e.g., Brooker, op. cit., p. 296. Martin, op. cit., p. 177. Kallis, op. cit., p. 45. See also Renzo De Felice, Rosso e nero, ed. Pasquale Chessa (Milano: Baldini & Castoldi, 1995), pp. 149–163.

  35. 35.

    Brooker, op. cit., pp. 89–90, 149, 210. MacGregor Knox, “Expansionist Zeal, Fighting Power, and Staying Power in the Italian and German Dictatorships,” in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, ed. Richard Bessel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 119–123. See also Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (London: Duckworth, 2000), pp. 197, 313–314. Bosworth, Mussolini, pp. 253–256, 272–273. These two important biographies refer to racism not only as anti-white and anti-Semitic but also as a racial hierarchy. However, it would be necessary to clarify how one could differentiate the traditional prejudice of leaders from contemporary racism and how one could compare one racism with another.

  36. 36.

    TNA, FO371/18032, J3147/1330/1 (21/12/1934); J1627/1330/1 (18/6/1934). Haile Sellassie I, My Life and Ethiopia’s Progress 1892–1937: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Sellassie I, trans. and annotated by Edward Ullendorff (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 208–209.

  37. 37.

    The spelling of the name of Amau (instead of Amo) will follow the spelling used in Western documents of the 1930s. Il Popolo d’Italia, 17/1/1934. Cf. The Times, 29/1/1934. PAAA, R85842, I. 519 (26/4/1934). Kallis, op. cit., p. 51. Ken Ishida, “Mussolini and Diplomats in the Ethiopian War: The Foreign Policy Decision-Making Process in Fascist Italy,” Hogaku Zasshi of Osaka City University, Vol. 42, No. 4 (1996), 1003.

  38. 38.

    PAAA, R85844, J Nr. 3574 (1/10/1934).

  39. 39.

    Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, Roma, Fondo: Archivio di Base, 3182/6, No. 224 (G/3/2/II) (24/3/1934); 3191/1, No. 380 U.T. (21/6/1934).

  40. 40.

    Ibid., 3278/6, No. 381 U.T. (23/6/1934). PAAA, R85842, I. 519 (26/4/1934). Salvatore Minardi, Il disarmo navale italiano (1919–1936): Un confronto politico-diplomatico per il potere marittimo (Roma: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1999), pp. 307–313. Mussolini later supported the Japanese proposal at the naval conference in order to profit from its threatening position against Britain. Valdo Ferretti, Il Giappone e la politica estera italiana 1935–41 (Milano: Giuffrè, 1983), p. 96.

  41. 41.

    PAAA, R85843, I. 519 II (24/5/1934).

  42. 42.

    Osaka Asahi Shimbun, 21/9/1934. TNA, CAB29/147, N. C. M. (35), 9th meeting (27/11/1934).

  43. 43.

    JFMA, A. 4. 6. 1. ET/I 1-2, Vol. 1, No. 1442 (5/6/1935).

  44. 44.

    Iwane Matsui , the head of the association and later the responsible general for the Nanking atrocity, proclaimed that its aim was to spread Japanese ideals abroad, and especially to guide China in “the right direction.” Takashi Okakura, Echiopia no Rekishi: “Shiba no Joou no Kuni” kara “Akai Teikoku” Hokai made (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1999), p. 250.

  45. 45.

    New York Times, 29/4/1934.

  46. 46.

    Yosuke Matsuoka, Showa Ishin (Tokyo: Daiichi Shuppansha, 1938), p. 73.

  47. 47.

    Masanori Taura, “Ie-Funso to Nihon-gawa Taio,” Nihon Rekishi, No. 526 (1992), 80–83. ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B10, F1, Telegr. P. 1180 R/174 (I/7/1935). Ibid., F2, Telesp. 228825 (23/8/1935).

  48. 48.

    Corriere della sera, 23/7/1935.

  49. 49.

    JFMA, A. 4. 6. 1. ET/I 1-2, Vol. 1, No. 86 (23/7/1935). ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B10, F2, Telegr. P. 1322 R/C (23/7/1935). FRUS, 1935-I, p. 613. TNA, FO371/19120, J3192/1/1 (26/7/1935).

  50. 50.

    Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 24/7/1935.

  51. 51.

    Fulvio Suvich, Memorie, 1932–1936, a cura di Gianfranco Bianchi (Milano: Rizzoli, 1984), p. 291.

  52. 52.

    Ferretti, op. cit., pp. 44, 56. ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B10, F1, Colloquio con l’Ambasciatore del Giappone (22/11/1935).

  53. 53.

    Francis P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), pp. 641–642, 680. George W. Baer, The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 311. Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939 (hereafter DBFP), 2-XIV (London: HMSO, 1976), Nos. 151, 330, 537. Survey of International Affairs, 1935-II (London: Oxford University Press, 1936), pp. 180–181, 342–350.

  54. 54.

    Ferretti, op. cit., pp. 26, 45, 64. Aloisi also explicitly blamed the “Jews and Freemasons in the League of Nations for anti-Italian attitudes during the Ethiopian War.” Pompeo Aloisi, Journal (Paris: Plon, 1957), pp. 326, 330.

  55. 55.

    League of Nations Official Journal, November 1935, 1355–1594. Raffaele Guariglia, Ricordi, 1922–1946 (hereafter Guariglia, Ricordi) (Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1949), pp. 226–227, 259–261. Id, Ambasciata in Spagna e primi passi in diplomazia, a cura di Ruggiero Moscati (Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1972), p. XII. Baer, op. cit., pp. 21–22.

  56. 56.

    JFMA, A. 2. 0. 0. X1, “Kokusai Kankei yori Mitaru Nihon no Sugata” (1/8/1935).

  57. 57.

    TNA, FO371/19118, J3044/1/1 (22/7/1935). TNA, FO371/19123, J3540/1/1 (5/8/1935).

  58. 58.

    ASMAE, AP, Etiopia Fondo di Guerra, B13, F10, Telesp. 226730 (7/8/1935). Ibid., B13, F18, Telesp. 231542 (10/9/1935); Telesp. 204506 (6/2/1936). The National Archives of the United States, Washington, DC, Collection of Italian Military Records, 1935–1943, Microcopy T-821, Reel 354, Comando Superiore A.O., Ufficio Informazioni, n. 8891 (11/10/1935), 125. The Japanese foreign ministry and military repeatedly claimed that neither soldiers nor arms were sent from Japan to Ethiopia. ASMAE, AP, Giappone, B10, F2, No. 195 (12/6/1936), No. 224 (26/6/1936). Ironically, the last Western country exporting arms to Ethiopia was Germany, which even trained Austrian volunteers who wanted to fight against Italy in Ethiopia. Manfred Funke, Sanktionen und Kanonen. Hitler, Mussolini und der internationale Abessinienkonflikt 1934–1936 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1970), S. 37. TNA, FO371/19121, J3343/1/1 (27/7/1935). ASMAE, AP, Etiopia Fondo di Guerra, B13, F9, Telesp. N. 436j/506 (26/6/1935); Telesp. 223193 (12/7/1935).

  59. 59.

    Bundesarchiv, Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 43/49, Denkschrift über das Außenpolitische Schulungshaus von Erwin Knauer.

  60. 60.

    Kallis, op. cit., p. 40. Ciano, Diario, p. 115. Dino Grandi, Il mio paese. Ricordi autobiografici, a cura di Renzo De Felice (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1985), p. 452.

  61. 61.

    PAAA, R28553, RM 1453 (20/10/1933); s. n. (11/10/1933). ADAP, C-IV, Nr. 69.

  62. 62.

    Ken Ishida, Chichukai Shin-Roma Teikoku eno Michi: Fashisuto Itaria no Taigaiseisaku 1935–39 (hereafter Ishida, Chichukai) (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1994), pp. 210–211.

  63. 63.

    Ryoichi Tobe, “Gaimusho Kakushin-ha to Shin-Chitsujo,” in Nihon no Kiro to Matsuoka Gaiko 1940–41, ed. Kimitada Miwa and Ryoichi Tobe (Tokyo: Nansosha, 1993), pp. 123, 126, 135–136. Cf. Brooks, op. cit., pp. 160–164. Togo tried to avoid an intimate connection with Nazi Germany even when he was ambassador to Berlin. On the other hand, the German foreign ministry commented that many people in Japan did not have negative feelings about the racial question. One exception was Shigenori Togo, who was married to a German. Nobutoshi Hagiwara, Togo Shigenori: Denki to Kaisetsu, in Gaisho Togo Shigenori, Vol. II, ed. Togo Shigenori Kinenkai (Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1985), pp. 214–216, 223–229, 235–236, 284. ADAP, C-II, Nr. 256.

  64. 64.

    Mamoru Shigemitsu, Showa no Doran, Vol. 1 (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1952), pp. 35, 50, 160–161, 168. Takeda, op. cit., pp. 74–75. Christopher Thorne, The Limits of Foreign Policy: The West, the League and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1931–1933 (London: Hamilton, 1972), pp. 7, 53, 236, 299, 349, 358–359.

  65. 65.

    Nobuo Tajima, Nachizumu Kyokuto Senryaku (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997), pp. 144–151. Kumao Harada, op. cit., Vol. 7 (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1952), p. 18. Hachiro Arita , Bakahachi to Hito wa Iu: Ichi Gaikokan no Kaiso (hereafter Arita, Bakahachi) (Tokyo: Kowado, 1959), p. 90. Carl Boyd, The Extraordinary Envoy: General Hiroshi Oshima and Diplomacy in the Third Reich, 1934–1939 (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980), p. 68.

  66. 66.

    Hachiro Arita , Hito no Me no Chiri wo Miru: Gaiko Mondai Kaikoroku (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1948), pp. 276–277. Tokushiro Ohata, “Nichidoku Bokyo Kyotei・Do Kyoka Mondai, 1935–1939,” in Taiheiyo Senso eno Michi, Vol. 5 (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbunsha, 1963), p. 21. Tajima, op. cit., pp. 119–122, 129–130. Seizo Arisue , “Sangoku Domei,” in Syun’ichi Kase, et al., Katari Tsugu Showashi: Gekido no Hanseiki, Vol. 3 (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbunsha, 1976), pp. 64–65.

  67. 67.

    Österreichsches Staatsarchiv, Neue Politische Archiv, Wien, K84, No. 16/pol (15/2/1934). TNA, FO371/18345, R540/37/3 (25/1/1934). TNA, FO371/18363, R1541/1287/3 (3/3/1934). DBFP, 2-VI, No. 222. Suvich, op. cit., p. V. Michael Mann, Fascists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 209, 212, 233.

  68. 68.

    Guariglia, Ricordi, pp. 193–199, 202–206. Id., Ambasciata in Spagna e primi passi in diplomazia, a cura di Ruggiero Moscati (Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1972), pp. 265–266, 291–292, 302–324. John F. Coverdale, Italian Intervention in the Spanish Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 45, 48, 50–53.

  69. 69.

    Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 94. TNA, FO371/18098, F3252/107/10 (21/5/1934).

  70. 70.

    Manabu Hamaguchi, “‘Tairiku’ niokeru Raihiman to Mone,” Gaiko Shiryo Kampo, Vol. 12 (1998), pp, 90, 92. Thorne, op. cit., p. 135. TNA, FO371/18097, F2696/107/10 (8/5/1934). TNA, FO371/18098, F3011/107/10 (17/5/1934).

  71. 71.

    Shigemitsu, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 131–132.

  72. 72.

    ASMAE, AP, Cina, B4, Telesp. 71 (13/10/1931). Sugimura’s dislike of Rajchman can be seen in the following document. JFMA, B. 1. 0. 0. X8. Vol. 2, No. 368, “Showa Kunen-matsu niokeru Oshu Kokusai Josei” (31/12/1934).

  73. 73.

    Sugimura, op. cit., pp. 411, 422.

  74. 74.

    Renato Mori, Mussolini e la conquista dell’Etiopia (Firenze: Le Monnier, 1978), pp. 189–190. Ferretti, op. cit., pp. 71–72.

  75. 75.

    ASMAE, AP, Etiopia Fondo di Guerra, B29, F1, 1289/1184 (7/11/1935). Ambassador to Germany Bernardo Attolico also warned the foreign ministry that it should be interpreted as a weakness or sign of accepting the sanctions unless Italy broke relations with the League or withdrew from it. Ibid., 4167/1676 (12/11/1935).

  76. 76.

    I documenti diplomatici italiani, 8-V (Roma: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1994), nn. 94, 100.

  77. 77.

    ASMAE, Fondo Gabinetto, Carte Lancelotti, Ufficio di Coordinamento (hereafter FGCLUC), F37-45, B9, G44, F1, Appunto per il Ministro (28/11/1936). ADAP, D-III, Nr. 142. Coverdale, op. cit., p. 405. ADAP, D-III, Nrn. 142, 157.

  78. 78.

    ADAP, D-I, Nrn. 471–473.

  79. 79.

    “Dai 70-kai Teikoku Gikai niokeru Arita Gaimudaijin Enzetsu,” (21/1/1937) donated from the Japanese Foreign Ministry to the University of Tokyo Faculty of Law. Shigeharu Matsumoto, Shanghai Jidai: Janarisuto no Kaiso, Vol. 3 (Tokyo: Chuko Shinsho, 1975), p. 128.

  80. 80.

    Toshikazu Inoue, Kiki nonakano Kyocho Gaiko: Nicchu Senso niitaru Taigaiseisaku no Keisei to Tenkai (Tokyo: Yamawaka Shuppansha, 1994), pp. 221, 275–276, 322–323. Matsumoto, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 183–184. Itaro Ishii, Gaikokan no Issho (hereafter Ishii, Gaikokan) (Tokyo: Chuko Bunko, 1986), p. 310. Nomura, op. cit., pp. 217–219.

  81. 81.

    ADAP, C-VI, Nr. 75.

  82. 82.

    Ishii, Gaikokan, p. 300. Ishii Itaro Nikki (hereafter Ishii Nikki), ed. Takashi Ito and Liu Jie (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1993), pp. 167–168, 182.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., pp. 185, 187.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., p. 188. Not only Ishii but also his predecessor, Morito Morishima, held in common severe criticism of Prime Minister Konoe and Foreign Minister Hirota . Morito Morishima, Imbo Ansatsu Gunto: Ichi-Gaikokan no Kaiso (Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho, 1950), pp. 133–135.

  85. 85.

    Ishii Nikki, pp. 198, 203, 212, 215.

  86. 86.

    Ishida, Chichukai, pp. 102–106, 125–127, 132, 138–141, 168.

  87. 87.

    Roberto Cantalupo , Fu la Spagna (Milano: Mondadori, 1948), pp. 62–63, 72–77, 98.

  88. 88.

    Ibid., pp. 244–257. Coverdale, op. cit., pp. 271–273.

  89. 89.

    TNA, FO371/18098, F3252/107/10 (21/5/1934).

  90. 90.

    Toshihiko Shimada and Masao Inaba, ed., Gendaishi Shiryo, Vol. 8: Nicchu Senso, No. 1 (Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo, 1964), pp. 404–418. Ishii, Gaikokan, pp. 238–240, 334. Matsumoto, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 248–249. TNA, FO371/18097, F2378/107/10 (26/4/1934). TNA, FO371/18098, F3252/107/10 (21/5/1934). Even though Suma’s activities were tied up with the military, he was too independent to be considered as a mere local branch of the military. Masataka Matsuura, Zaikai no Seijikeizaishi: Inoue Junnosuke, Go Seinosuke, Ikeda Shigeaki no Jidai (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2002), pp. 183, 187. Liu Jie, “‘Chugoku-tsu’ Gaikokan to Gaimusho no Chugoku Seisaku: 1935–1937,” in Nicchu Senso no Shoso, ed. Gunjishi Gakkai (Tokyo: Kinseisha, 1997), pp. 92–107.

  91. 91.

    ACS, SPDCR, Carteggio Riservato, 364/R, B62, F. Elenchi degli ufficiali, funzionari ed agenti antifascisti divisi per Ministeri. TNA, FO371/20589, W18449/9549/41 (18/12/1936). Cantalupo, op. cit., p. 83.

  92. 92.

    Boyd, op. cit., pp. 39–40.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., pp. 44–45, 55. Arita, Bakahachi, pp. 77–78, 81.

  94. 94.

    TNA, FO371/20286, F7448/303/23 (2/12/1936).

  95. 95.

    Shigenori Togo, “Jidai no Ichimen,” in Gaisho Togo Shigenori, Vol. I, ed., Togo Shigenori Kinenkai (Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1985), pp. 109–110. Boyd, op. cit., p. 55.

  96. 96.

    DBFP, 2-XXI, No. 5.

  97. 97.

    Inoue, op. cit., pp. 274–276, 281–282. n. 18.

  98. 98.

    ASMAE, FGCLUC, F37-45, B9, G44, F1, Appunto per il Ministro (28/11/1936). ADAP, D-III, Nr. 142. Coverdale, op. cit., pp. 153–156, 405.

  99. 99.

    Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 2: Lo Stato totalitario 1936–1940 (Torino: Einaudi, 1981), p. 389. ASMAE, FGCLUC, F37-45, B9, G44, F1, Palazzo Venezia (14/1/1937). Paul Schmidt, Statist auf diplomatischer Bühne (Bonn: Athenäum, 1949), S. 346. O. O., XXVIII, pp. 69–70, 105–106; XXIX, pp. 241–242.

  100. 100.

    De Felice, Mussolini il Duce, Vol. 2, pp. 426, 428–429. Ciano, Diario, pp. 53, 64, 67.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., pp. 52–53.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., p. 55. Galeazzo Ciano (verbalizzati da), L’Europa verso la catastrofe (Verona: Mondodori, 1948), p. 223. Coverdale, op. cit., pp. 324–325.

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Ishida, K. (2018). The Ideological Backgrounds of Axis Foreign Policies. In: Japan, Italy and the Road to the Tripartite Alliance. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96223-8_2

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