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‘The Gift of Education’: Emancipation and Government Education in the West Indies, Britain and Beyond

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Education and Empire

Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series ((CIPCSS))

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Abstract

This chapter focuses on connections between education in Britain, the West Indies and the settler colonies between 1833 and 1847. In this period, education came to be seen as the responsibility of a humanitarian colonial government and as central to social reform in Britain and the colonies. Ideas about what education should enable—who should access it, and how—changed in relation to these developments. The ways in which the imperial government came to see education as a legitimate arena for government involvement is central to understanding the development of education in Britain’s settler colonies. The chapter uses material relating to the Negro Education Grant in the West Indies, including reports from inspector Charles La Trobe, as well as a memorandum on industrial education produced by James Kay-Shuttleworth.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Grant was not taken up in the Cape, and prompted less activity in Mauritius than the West Indies. Nigel Worden states that there was ‘no equivalent’ of the activity surrounding the Grant in the West Indies, at the Cape. See Nigel Worden, ‘Between Slavery and Freedom: The Apprenticeship Period, 1834 to 1838’, in Breaking the Chains: Freedom and Its Legacy in the Nineteenth-Century Cape Colony, ed. by Nigel Worden and Clifton Crais (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1994), 117–144, 121n. The extensive correspondence between missionary John Philip and Thomas Fowell Buxton during this period does suggest that missionaries at the Cape would have known about the Grant. Many freed slaves at the Cape did end up on mission stations, where it is likely that they received some literary training, although not under the auspices of the Grant. Wayne Dooling, Slavery, Emancipation and Colonial Rule in South Africa (Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007), 117–118. I have discussed the Grant in the British imperial context, particularly in relation to industrial education in Natal in Rebecca Swartz, ‘Industrial Education in Natal: The British Imperial Context, 1830–1860’, in Empire and Education in Africa: The Shaping of a Comparative Perspective, ed. by Peter Kallaway and Rebecca Swartz (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), 53–80.

  2. 2.

    Patricia Rooke, ‘A Scramble for Souls: The Impact of the Negro Education Grant on Evangelical Missionaries in the British West Indies’, History of Education Quarterly, 21 (1981), 429–447, 429. See Abolition of Slavery. Papers in explanation of the measures adopted by His Majesty’s government, for giving effect to the act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies: Part 1—Jamaica, 1833–1835, HC 177 (1835), 5.

  3. 3.

    Negro Education, British Guiana & Trinidad, 14 August 1838, HC 35 (1839), [Hereafter British Guiana and Trinidad Report], 11.

  4. 4.

    Apprenticeship was the period in which previously enslaved people remained bound to work for former masters for three quarters of their time. Initially planned to last ten years from the date of emancipation, the system was abolished in 1838, after it became clear that it was essentially slavery by another name.

  5. 5.

    J. Alexander and D.G. Paz, ‘The Treasury Grants, 1833–1839’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 22 (1974), 78–92, 78. The abolition of slavery was debated in the House of Commons on 03.06.1833. The education debates took place on 14.03.1833 and 17.08.1833. See HC Deb 03.06.1833, vol. 18 cc308–60 and HC Deb 17.08.1833, vol. 20 cc732–6 and HL Deb 14.03.1833, vol. 16 cc632–9 for Commons and Lords debates about the Grant.

  6. 6.

    Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Oxford: Polity, 2002), 88.

  7. 7.

    Susan Thorne, ‘“The Conversion of Englishmen and the Conversion of the World Inseparable”: Missionary Imperialism and the Language of Class in Early Industrial Britain’, in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. by Ann Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 238–262, 238, 240.

  8. 8.

    Alison Twells, The Civilising Mission and the English Middle Class, 1792–1850: The “Heathen” at Home and Overseas (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 2.

  9. 9.

    See Zoë Laidlaw, ‘Heathens, Slaves and Aborigines: Thomas Hodgkin’s Critique of Missions and Anti-Slavery’, History Workshop Journal, 64 (2007), 133–161, 136, and ‘Imperial Complicity: Indigenous Dispossession in British History and History Writing’, in Emancipation and the Remaking of the British Imperial World, ed. by Catherine Hall, Nick Draper and Keith McClelland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014), 131–148; Catherine Hall, ‘The Slave-Owner and the Settler’, in Indigenous Networks: Mobility, Connections and Exchange, ed. by Jane Carey and Jane Lydon (New York and Oxon: Routledge, 2014), 29–49.

  10. 10.

    Laidlaw, ‘Imperial Complicity’, 144.

  11. 11.

    Jana Tschurenev, ‘Diffusing Useful Knowledge: The Monitorial System of Education in Madras, London and Bengal, 1789–1840’, Paedagogica Historica, 44 (2008), 245–264, 247.

  12. 12.

    Jana Tschurenev, ‘Incorporation and Differentiation: Popular Education and the Imperial Civilizing Mission in Early Nineteenth Century India’, in Civilizing Missions in Colonial and Postcolonial South Asia: From Improvement to Development, ed. by Carey A. Watt and Michael Mann (London and New York: Anthem Press, 2011), 93–124, 99. See Twells, The Civilising Mission, 64–69 on the monitorial system.

  13. 13.

    Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992, repr. 2009), 231.

  14. 14.

    Norman Etherington, ‘Education and Medicine’ in Missions and Empire, ed. by Norman Etherington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 261–284, 261.

  15. 15.

    Anne Digby and Peter Searby, Children, School and Society in Nineteenth Century England (London: Macmillan Press, 1981), 27.

  16. 16.

    Hall, Civilising Subjects, 27.

  17. 17.

    Linda McCoy, ‘Education for Labour: Social Problems of Nationhood’, in Forming Nation, Framing Welfare, ed. by Gail Lewis (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 93–138, 109.

  18. 18.

    M. A. Crowther, The Workhouse System 1834–1929: The History of an English Social Institution (London: Routledge, 1981), 202.

  19. 19.

    Patrick Brantlinger, ‘The Case of the Poisonous Book: Mass Literacy as Threat in Nineteenth-Century British Fiction’, Victorian Review, 20 (1994), 117–133, 119.

  20. 20.

    Helen May, Baljit Kaur, and Larry Prochner, Empire, Education, and Indigenous Childhoods: Nineteenth-Century Missionary Infant Schools in Three British Colonies (Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2014), 28.

  21. 21.

    Hugh Cunningham, ‘Introduction’, in Charity, Philanthropy and Reform: From the 1690s to 1850, ed. by Hugh Cunningham and Joanna Innes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1998), 1–14, 4.

  22. 22.

    John Doheny, ‘Bureaucracy and the Education of the Poor in Nineteenth Century Britain’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 39 (1991), 325–339, 336.

  23. 23.

    Minutes of Committee of Privy Council on Education, 13.04.1839, HC 177 (1839), 3. It is noteworthy that the first education inspectors were appointed in the Cape in the same year. This shows that education policy was not emanating from a well-established centre, but rather, was responding to both local and global changes in thinking about education. In fact, as Helen Ludlow points out, the Cape had the first system of national free schools open to all of its population anywhere in the British Empire, which lasted from 1839 until the 1860s. Helen Ludlow, ‘Examining the Government Teacher: State Schooling and Scandal in a Mid-Nineteenth-Century Cape Village’, South African Historical Journal, 62 (2010), 534–560, 534.

  24. 24.

    Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, 24.09.1839, HC 18 (1840), 11.

  25. 25.

    Brief account of the British and Foreign School Society 1835, The National Archives at Kew (TNA) CO 318/122. Hereafter all CO references are from TNA.

  26. 26.

    Lord John Russell to the Lord President of the Council, 4.02.1839, Papers on Education, HC 16 (1839), 1.

  27. 27.

    Ian Newbould, ‘The Whigs, the Church, and Education, 1839’, Journal of British Studies, 26 (1987), 332–346, 341.

  28. 28.

    Minutes of Proceedings of Committee of Privy Council on Education, 13.04.1839, 1.

  29. 29.

    Paul Sedra, ‘Exposure to the Eyes of God: Monitorial Schools and Evangelicals in Early Nineteenth-century England’, Paedagogica Historica, 47 (2011), 263–281, 266.

  30. 30.

    See Swartz, ‘Industrial Education in Natal’.

  31. 31.

    Jennifer Ridden, ‘“Making Good Citizens”: National Identity, Religion, and Liberalism among the Irish Elite, c.1800–1850’ (PhD thesis, King’s College London, 1998), 91, 98.

  32. 32.

    J.M. Goldstrom, The Social Content of Education, 1808–1870: A Study of the Working Class School Reader in England and Ireland (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1972), 62.

  33. 33.

    Thomas Wyse, HC Deb 19.05.1835, vol. 27 cc1199–233.

  34. 34.

    Ridden, ‘“Making Good Citizens”’, 91, 98.

  35. 35.

    Goldstrom, The Social Content of Education, 76.

  36. 36.

    John Coolahan, ‘Imperialism and the Irish National School System’ in Benefits bestowed: Education and British Imperialism, ed. by James Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 76–93, 80.

  37. 37.

    Patrick Walsh, ‘Education and the “Universalist” Idiom of Empire: Irish National School Books in Ireland and Ontario’, History of Education, 37 (2008), 645–660.

  38. 38.

    Committee on Slavery Minute Book, 15.05.1835, Records of the Anti-Slavery Society, RHL [Hereafter ASS Papers], E2/4, 92.

  39. 39.

    Thomas Fowell Buxton circular to the Secretaries of the Mission Societies, 28.11.1832, Mss. Br. Emp. S.444, vol. 3, RHL [Hereafter Buxton Correspondence]. Amanda Barry refers to Buxton’s interest in West Indian education, although she does not refer to the Negro Education Grant. Amanda Barry, ‘Broken Promises: Aboriginal Education in South-Eastern Australia, 1837–1937’ (PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, 2008), 45.

  40. 40.

    Aberdeen, HL Deb 27.02.1835, vol. 26 cc416–23.

  41. 41.

    Treasury Correspondence, 21.07.1835, CO 318/122; Carl Campbell, ‘Towards an Imperial Policy for the Education of Negroes in the West Indies After Emancipation’ (University of the West Indies, Department of History, 1967), 1–53, 32, 35; Shirley Gordon, ‘The Negro Education Grant 1835–1845: Its Application in Jamaica’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 6 (1958), 140–150, 143.

  42. 42.

    D Coates (CMS) to T. Fowell Buxton, 3.12.1834, CO 318/122, fol. 82.

  43. 43.

    Wallbridge Report, 21.08.1841, ASS papers, RHL, E1/13; Rooke, ‘A Scramble for Souls’, 442.

  44. 44.

    Patricia Rooke, ‘Slavery, Social Death and Imperialism: The Formation of a Christian Black Elite in the West Indies, 1800–1845’, in Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialisation and British Imperialism, ed. by James Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 23–45, 24.

  45. 45.

    Glenelg to Sligo, 15.10.1835, CO 318/126.

  46. 46.

    It is worth noting that from 1823, when amelioration conditions were promoted in the West Indies, increased education was provided to enslaved people, in Sunday Schools or day schools. However, as Olwyn Blouet notes, it is difficult to estimate the exact figures of children in school as planters often kept limited or incomplete records. See Olwyn Blouet, ‘Slavery and Freedom in the British West Indies, 1823–33: The Role of Education’, History of Education Quarterly, 30 (1990), 625–643, especially 627–637.

  47. 47.

    At the time that the Grant was applied, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Church Missionary Society, Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, Moravian Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society, London Missionary Society, Scottish Missionary Society, Ladies Negro Education Society and the Mico Charity were working in the West Indies.

  48. 48.

    Sterling Memorandum, CO 318/122, 11.05.1836.

  49. 49.

    Memorandum on the continued necessity of Stipendiary Magistrates in West Indies and Mauritius, 20.11.1838, CO 318/141.

  50. 50.

    Sterling Memorandum.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    HL Deb 27.02.1835, vol. 26 cc416–23.

  53. 53.

    For example, the Grenada Legislature voted £1,000 for education in 1837, Negro Education, Windward & Leeward Islands, 14 April 1838, HC 520 (1837–1838) [Hereafter Windward and Leeward Islands Report], 48.

  54. 54.

    Campbell, ‘Towards an Imperial Policy’, 4.

  55. 55.

    Priscilla Johnston to Sarah Buxton, 09.03.1835, Buxton Correspondence, vol. 13, 350. See also Rooke, ‘A Scramble for Souls’, 432.

  56. 56.

    Enclosures of Report of Select Committee on Negro Apprenticeship in the Colonies, No. 14. in CO 318/126, vol. 3.

  57. 57.

    Carl Campbell, ‘Social and Economic Obstacles to the Development of Popular Education in Post-Emancipation Jamaica, 1834–1863’ (University of the West Indies, Department of History, n.d.), 7; William Green, British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment 1830–1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 336.

  58. 58.

    Sligo to Jamaica Assembly, 26.01.1836, Report from the Select Committee on Negro Apprenticeship in the Colonies; together with the minutes of evidence, appendix and index, HC 560 (1836), Appendix 8, 106.

  59. 59.

    Circular from George Grey to various mission societies, 10.09.1835, in Select Committee on Negro Apprenticeship, Appendix 17, 220.

  60. 60.

    Thomas Fowell Buxton to Sir George Grey, 1.02.1837, CO 318/130, fol. 7.

  61. 61.

    Appointment of Charles La Trobe, CO 318/130, fol. 1–2.

  62. 62.

    Ibid.

  63. 63.

    Campbell, ‘Towards an Imperial Policy’, 3.

  64. 64.

    Patritica Rooke, ‘The Christianization and Education of Slaves and Apprentices in the British West Indies: The Impact of Evangelical Missionaries (1800–1838)’ (PhD thesis, University of Alberta, 1977), 241.

  65. 65.

    Reports on Negro Education. Negro Education, Jamaica, 19 October 1837, HC 113 (1837–1838) [Hereafter Jamaica Report], Windward and Leeward Islands Report, British Guiana & Trinidad Report.

  66. 66.

    Zoë Laidlaw, Colonial Connections 1815–1845: Patronage, the Information Revolution and Colonial Government (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2005), 46, 169.

  67. 67.

    Rooke, ‘The Christianization and Education of Slaves’, 258.

  68. 68.

    Schedule A—Report of Sligoville School, St Catherine’s, run by Baptist Mission Society. Jamaica Report, 40.

  69. 69.

    Jamaica Report, 5.

  70. 70.

    Rooke, ‘The Christianization and Education of Slaves’, 237.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., 12.

  72. 72.

    Jamaica Report, 7.

  73. 73.

    Windward and Leeward Islands Report, 7.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 8. I pick this theme up in Chap. 7.

  75. 75.

    British Guiana and Trinidad Report, 4.

  76. 76.

    See Thomas Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 33–34.

  77. 77.

    Buxton to Trew, 15.n.d.1836, Buxton Correspondence, vol. 3, 89.

  78. 78.

    Windward and Leeward Islands Report, 13.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., 9.

  80. 80.

    See my discussion of the reception of Kay-Shuttleworth’s memorandum below.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., 13.

  82. 82.

    Jamaica Report, 11.

  83. 83.

    British Guiana and Trinidad Report, 7.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., 11.

  85. 85.

    Ibid.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., 15, 94.

  87. 87.

    M. Kazim Bacchus, ‘Consensus and Conflict over the Provision of Elementary Education’, in Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society from Emancipation to the Present: A Student Reader, ed. by Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd (London: James Currey and Kingston: Ian Randle Press, 1993), 296–312, 302.

  88. 88.

    M. Kazim Bacchus, Education As and For Legitimacy: Developments in West Indian Education between 1846 and 1895 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1994), 122.

  89. 89.

    British Guiana and Trinidad Report, 2.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., 10.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., 7.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., 8.

  93. 93.

    Green, British Slave Emancipation, 336.

  94. 94.

    Circular from Smith to all of the Societies receiving aid, 18.03.1841, Copies of letters received by the Sec State on Negro Education, 1840–1845, CO 319/42.

  95. 95.

    Rooke, ‘The Christianization and Education of Slaves’, 247.

  96. 96.

    Holt, The Problem of Freedom, 182.

  97. 97.

    Elgin to Stanley, 23.10.1844, CO 137/280, No. 119.

  98. 98.

    Elgin to Stanley, 20.04.1843, CO 137/273.

  99. 99.

    Report of the Jamaican Board of Education, 1846, CO 137/293, 14.

  100. 100.

    Bacchus, Education as and for Legitimacy, 12.

  101. 101.

    Ibid. James Kay-Shuttleworth was born James Phillips Kay in 1804, in a middle-class household in Rochdale. He trained as a doctor, and began work in Manchester. He took his wife, Janet Shuttleworth’s, name when they married in 1842. Richard Selleck, ‘Shuttleworth, Sir James Phillips Kay-, first baronet (1804–1877)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15199, accessed 27.03.2015].

  102. 102.

    Richard Selleck, James Kay-Shuttleworth: Journey of an Outsider (Newbury Park: Woburn Press, 1994), 71; Catherine Hall, ‘The Nation Within and Without’, in Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867, ed. by Catherine Hall, Keith McClelland and Jane Rendall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 179–233, 210; Mary Poovey, Making a Social Body: British Cultural Formation, 1830–1864 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 67.

  103. 103.

    James Kay, Recent Measures for the Promotion of Education in England (London: Ridgeway, 1839), 19.

  104. 104.

    James Kay-Shuttleworth, The School in Its Relations to the State, the Church, and the Congregation: Being an Explanation of the Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, in August and December, 1846 (London: John Murray, 1847), 57.

  105. 105.

    Green, British Slave Emancipation, 339; Earl Grey to Governor of Antigua, 16.10.1846, Labour (colonies). (West Indies and Mauritius.) Immigration of labourers into the West India colonies and the Mauritius. State of the labouring population, &c., HC 325 (1847), 6.

  106. 106.

    Hawes to Kay-Shuttleworth, 30.11.1846 in ibid., 5.

  107. 107.

    Ibid.

  108. 108.

    Swartz, ‘Industrial Education in Natal’, 62–63.

  109. 109.

    Governor Lord Harris to Gladstone, 31.07.1846, in ibid., 101.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., 102.

  111. 111.

    Stanley to Governor Fitzroy, 26.08.1845, British colonies (West Indies and Mauritius). Returns relating to Labouring Populations in British colonies; Orders in Council respecting supply of labour in colonies. Part I. State of Labouring Population in W. Indies and Mauritius; Part II. Immigration of Labourers; Part III. Stipendiary Magistrates; Laws of Masters and Servants; Courts of Appeal; Tariffs, HC 691-I; 691-II; 691-III (1846), 254.

  112. 112.

    James Kay-Shuttleworth, ‘Brief Practical Suggestions on the Mode of Organising and Conducting Day-Schools of Industry, Model Farm-Schools and Normal Schools, as Part of a System of Education for the Coloured Races of the British Colonies’, Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, with appendices, HC 866 (1847), 30–37. A copy of this paper is included in Anthonie Eduard Du Toit, ‘The Earliest British Document on Education for the Coloured Races’ (Pretoria: Communications of the University of South Africa, 1962).

  113. 113.

    Ibid., 31.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., 30–31.

  115. 115.

    Ibid., 30.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., 30, 33.

  117. 117.

    Amanda Barry, ‘“Equal to Children of European Origin”: Educability and the Civilising Mission in Early Colonial Australia’, History Australia, 5 (2008), 41.1–41.16, 41.8. Barry claims that Kay-Shuttleworth’s plan was aimed at African society, when in fact it was aimed at the West Indies.

  118. 118.

    Earl Grey circular, 26.01.1847, in Kay-Shuttleworth, ‘Brief Practical Suggestions’, 37.

  119. 119.

    Ibid.

  120. 120.

    There is evidence that the memo was received in the colonies. See MS15/524, WMMS, South Africa, Cory Library, Rhodes University, and Colonial Office Despatches, Circulars, Con. 41/19, State Records Office Western Australia.

  121. 121.

    Du Toit, ‘The Earliest British Document on Education for the Coloured Races’, 14.

  122. 122.

    British Guiana and Trinidad Report, 8.

  123. 123.

    John Salmon to Pilgrim, Enclosure in Charles Edward Grey to Earl Grey, 20.09.1847, CO 137/293.

  124. 124.

    Bacchus, Education As and For Legitimacy, 143.

  125. 125.

    Du Toit, ‘The Earliest British Document on Education for the Coloured Races’, 13.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., 15.

  127. 127.

    David Johnson, ‘Starting Positions: The Social Function of Literature in the Cape’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 19 (1993), 615–633, 624.

  128. 128.

    Michael Christie, ‘Educating Bungalene: A Case of Educational Colonialism’, History of Education Review, 23 (1994), 46–54, 49, 54, n11.

  129. 129.

    George Grey, ‘Report on the best Means of Promoting the Civilization of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Australia’, Enclosure Russell to Gipps, 08.10.1840, in Aborigines (Australian colonies). Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 5 August 1844;—for, copies or extracts from the despatches of the governors of the Australian colonies, with the reports of the protectors of aborigines, and any other correspondence to illustrate the condition of the aboriginal population of the said colonies, from the date of the last papers laid before Parliament on the subject, (papers ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 12 August 1839, no. 526), HC 627 (1844), No. 23, 101–102.

  130. 130.

    R. Hunt Davis, ‘1855–1863: A Dividing Point in the Early Development of African Education in South Africa’ (Unpublished seminar paper, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 18, 1975), 1–15, 6.

  131. 131.

    Egerton Ryerson, Report by Dr. Ryerson on industrial schools, 1847, Appendix A in Statistics respecting Indian schools (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1898), 73.

  132. 132.

    Ibid.

  133. 133.

    Egerton Ryerson, Report on a System of Public Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada (Montreal: Lovell and Gibson, 1847), 10.

  134. 134.

    Twells, The Civilising Mission, 172.

  135. 135.

    Doheny, ‘Bureaucracy and the Education of the Poor’, 337.

  136. 136.

    Ibid., 338.

  137. 137.

    Keenan Malik, The Meaning of Race: Race, History and Culture in Western Society (New York: NYU Press, 1996), 90.

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    Rebecca Swartz

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Swartz, R. (2019). ‘The Gift of Education’: Emancipation and Government Education in the West Indies, Britain and Beyond. In: Education and Empire. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95909-2_2

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