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China: Sociological Perspectives on Ethnicity and Education: Views from Chinese and English Literatures

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The Palgrave Handbook of Race and Ethnic Inequalities in Education

Abstract

This chapter reviews Chinese- and English-language literature on ethnic minorities and education in China. Six major research topics emerge from the Chinese-language research: (1) Marxism and ethnic minority education; (2) patriotism and national unity in education for ethnic minority students; (3) multicultural education; (4) determinants of ethnic differences in education; (5) school facilities and teacher quality; and (6) preferential / affirmative action policies. Four research themes are identified from the English-language literature: (1) policy overviews; (2) education and ethnic identity; (3) incentives and disincentives for buy-in to the education system; and (4) educational stratification. The majority of quantitative research from both Chinese- and English-language literature investigates ethnic minorities as a collective group. Qualitative research focuses on individual ethnic groups, although no one group is the focus of particular attention. More qualitative studies currently exist, but the number of quantitative studies is growing, given the growing availability of survey and census data containing information on ethnic minorities. Both literatures focus on the complex interrelationships of ethnicity with cultural, policy, development, and language issues. Yet, these literatures draw on different ideological starting points, conform to different norms of academic composition, and speak to different audiences in different sociopolitical contexts. For these reasons, the English literature tends to adopt a more critical tone. However, more recent Chinese literature attends to educational equality and the role of cultural capital. Overall, relatively little of the work in either language comes from the field of sociology of education. More comparatively and theoretically framed work is needed to enable the Chinese experience to be informed by and inform global research in sociology of education.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The high degree of uniformity remains true today in relative terms, despite policies that have promoted more local content and the development of some non-standard admissions procedures in higher education (Hannum et al. 2011).

  2. 2.

    In 2009, a very small proportion of elementary school students, 0.17 percent, enrolled in vocational junior high schools (Ministry of Education 2010).

  3. 3.

    The rising number of college graduates in urban areas of China, coupled with dwindling number of jobs that demand college degrees, has created a concern over whether higher education can lead to middle-class attainment (Jennings 2010). In 2009, over 6 million new college graduates entered the labor market, many with the goal of finding white-collared employment in major cities (Ministry of Education 2010). However, a dearth of jobs in industries that many graduates would find desirable has led many to settle for low-paying manufacturing jobs. Recent media has described college graduates, who live in cramped conditions in cities and swarm to work each rush hour, as members of the “ant tribe” (Jennings 2010).

  4. 4.

    See Gao and Zhao (2016), Han and Li (2012), He and Lan (2013), Li and Jiang (2012), Zhang (2011).

  5. 5.

    See Hu (2011) and W. Wu (2014).

  6. 6.

    Literature in this tradition uses the Chinese phrase for unbalanced development, or 不均衡发展 (bujunheng fazhan).

  7. 7.

    See Zhang and Verhoeven (2010) for a discussion of access to higher education among ethnic minorities in Yunnan Province, based on what appears to be a purposive sample of higher education freshman students.

  8. 8.

    See Tsung (2009) for a recent review covering the PRC period.

  9. 9.

    For a discussion of legislation from different regional and local governments in China, see (Zhou 2005); for in-depth case studies of bilingual education in Yunnan and Sichuan, see (Xiao 1998) and (Teng 2002).

  10. 10.

    Feng and his colleagues (Adamson and Feng 2009; Feng and Sunuodula 2009) present a case study of the status in the curriculum of minority languages, namely Uyghur, Yi, and Zhuang, vis-à-vis standard Chinese and English in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province, and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Their arguments draw on field visits to each site, including interviews with stakeholders and policy document analysis.

  11. 11.

    Consistent with the Korean case just cited, Ojijed’s (2010) study of attitudes toward Mongolian, standard Chinese, and English amongst a small purposive sample of students at Inner Mongolia Normal University was suggestive of a high instrumental value attached to the latter two languages, relative to Mongolian.

  12. 12.

    While much work has catalogued minority education policies and discussed potential impacts, it is striking that few studies have sought to investigate in a direct manner the impact of specific policies around language use in schools. An exception is Tsung and Cruickshank’s (2009) comparison of a minority mother tongue school and a mixed school in Xinjiang, which, the authors suggest, indicated that mixed schooling will not address disparities in educational outcomes, as learning materials in the minority language remained poorly resourced.

  13. 13.

    See Wang and Zhou (2003, p. 99) for a list of inland Tibetan schools and classes.

  14. 14.

    In another paper, Chen (2010) focuses on the continuing importance of the family element of social capital for Uyghur students, despite the impediment of distance.

  15. 15.

    An interesting example of the disconnect between these viewpoints is the tension between China-based and overseas scholars’ interpretations of the boarding school phenomenon, according to Postiglione. He finds that North American and Australian scholars’ reactions to boarding schools are highly critical, due to their very overt assimilation agenda and, likely, the extremely unfortunate histories with ethnic boarding schools elsewhere.

  16. 16.

    To address regional inequalities and resource constraints, recent Chinese-language literature suggest that internet-based information technologies should be implemented in ethnic minority areas (A 2011; Duan 2015; Huang 2016; Kang and Yang 2012).

  17. 17.

    Several studies focus on the importance of preschool education in achieving education equality and cultural equality between Han and ethnic minorities (Li and Jiang 2012; Liang and Liu 2014; Wei 2014; Yuan 2012; Zhao 2013).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Hua-Yu Sebastian Cherng

  2. Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Emily Hannum

  3. School of Social Development and Public Administration, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China

    Chunping Lu

  4. College of Education, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA

    Peggy A. Kong & Xiaoran Yu

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    Peter A. J. Stevens

  2. Department of Sociology, The University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA

    A. Gary Dworkin

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Cherng, HY.S., Hannum, E., Lu, C., Kong, P.A., Yu, X. (2019). China: Sociological Perspectives on Ethnicity and Education: Views from Chinese and English Literatures. In: Stevens, P.A.J., Dworkin, A.G. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Race and Ethnic Inequalities in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94724-2_8

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