Abstract
Bhutan’s wondrous ecosystem diversity derives from its unique geographical location between the Palearctic realm of the temperate Euro-Asia and Indian subcontinent realms, a region comprising 3 of the Global 200 ecoregions (30 global biomes): the Eastern Himalayan Alpine Meadows, the Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer Forests, and the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands. Valleys in the inner mountains receive less than 800 mm of precipitation, while the lowlands receive as much as 5500 mm of rainfall. The country encompasses a range of ecosystems from subtropical forests in the southern foothills at an elevation of 150 m to mid-elevation temperate forests, to the northern alpine zone above 7000 m.
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Notes
- 1.
Olson DM, Dinerstein E (2002) The global 200: priority ecoregions for global conservation. Ann Missouri Bot Garden 89(2):199–224. WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregion Project. 238 ecoregions were actually described, of which 142 were terrestrial. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 2.
As defined by Conservation International, in Arlington Virginia, “It must have at least 1500 vascular plants as endemics – which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.” http://www.conservation.org/How/Pages/Hotspots.aspx. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 3.
http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/Asia-Pacific/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 4.
See http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS. Accessed 24 Aug 2016; see also Bhutan State of the Environment Report 2016, National Environment Commission Royal Government of Bhutan 2016. http://www.nec.gov.bt/nec1/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Bhutan-State-of-Environment-Report-2016.pdf. Accessed 27 Apr 2016.
- 5.
See also Worldometers. http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/bhutan-population/. Accessed 28 Apr 2016.
- 6.
See, for example, “Topographical Mapping,” by Thinley Jamtsho, the First National GIS Conference held on April 12th, 2001, http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan003478.pdf. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 7.
MoAF (2016) Bhutan State of Parks 2016. Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan.
- 8.
For a short history of mapping in Bhutan, see Karan PP (1965) Annals map supplement number five, “The Kingdom of Bhutan”. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 55(4):661. Published online: 15 March 2010, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1965.tb00539.x?journalCode=raag20. Accessed 25 Aug 2016. See also http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/eastern_himalaya/solutions2/climate_change_solutions/. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 9.
Personal communication with Mr. Stig Dalstrom, Orchid Specialist of the National Biodiversity Center, Bhutan 2017.
- 10.
For a brief summary of community forest initiatives in Bhutan, see “Community Forestry: Supporting Bhutan’s National and MDG Goals While Protecting Forests,” by Karma Jigme Temphel and Hans J. J. Beukeboom, http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ag131e/ag131e16.htm. Accessed 25 Aug 2016. See also National Strategy for Non-wood forest Product in Bhutan, Social Forestry Division, MoAF, RGOB 2008–2018.
- 11.
BTF (2010) Parks of Bhutan. Bhutan Trust Fund for Environment Conservation. Retrieved 4 Apr 2010.
- 12.
“Parks of Bhutan”. Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online. Bhutan Trust Fund. Accessed 28 Apr 2017. See also, Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture (2009) and WWF Bhutan Programme, Thimphu.
- 13.
See “Royal Manas National Park, Bhutan,” WWF for a Living Planet (2010). Retrieved 4 Apr 2010.
- 14.
See NCD (1995) Royal Manas National Park: conservation management plan 1995–2000. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
- 15.
“Bhutan State of Environment, 2016 – National Environment Commission.” www.nec.gov.bt/nec1/wp.../2016/07/Bhutan-State-of-Environment-Report-2016.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2017.
- 16.
ibid., Bhutan’s Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2016; see, also, the final chapter on Sakteng and Bhutan in general. In: Tobias MC, Morrison JG (eds) Sanctuary: Global Oases of Innocence. A Dancing Star Foundation Book, Council Oak Books, Tulsa. www.sanctuary-thebook.org, https://books.google.com/books/about/Sanctuary.html?id=K2VFAQAAIAAJ
- 17.
ibid., Sanctuary: Global Oases of Innocence.
- 18.
op.cit, BBCC (2004); MoAF (2016).
- 19.
NCD (2002) Thrumshingla National Park: conservation management plan 2002/03–2006/07. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture.
- 20.
op.cit., BBCC (2004); MoAF (2016).
- 21.
BBCC (2004), MOAF, p. 201.
- 22.
MoAF (2016); NCD (2002).
- 23.
NCD (2003), MoAF (2016); BBCC (2004).
- 24.
BBCC (2004); MoAF (2016).
- 25.
Community Forestry in Bhutan – Exploring Opportunities and Facing Challenges Paper for the Community Forestry International Workshop, Pokhara, Nepal, 15–18 September 2009 BB Chhetri, Kaspar Schmidt, Don Gilmour, https://assets.helvetas.org/downloads/2009_chhetri_schmidt_gilmour_community_forestry_in_bhutan.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2017.
- 26.
National Strategy for Community Forest, MoAF, 2010.
- 27.
FAO (1996).
- 28.
Social Forestry Division, DoF, 2007
- 29.
- 30.
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/29/bhutan-tiger-population-higher-than-previously-though-survey-reveals. Accessed 25 Aug 2016. See also, DoFPS (2015) Nation-wide Tiger survey 2014–2015. Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan; See also MoA (1992) Hotspots revisited – Earth’s biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions. CEMEX: Conservation International, Washington, DC; Mittermeier RA et al (2004) Tiger conservation strategy for the Kingdom of Bhutan, National Strategy for Community Forestry, The Way Ahead, Royal Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Department of Forests and Park Services, May 2010. See also 36 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand, RAP Publication: 1996/6, Non-Wood Forest Products of Bhutan. WRI (2007) Earth trends: environmental information available at http://earthtrends.wri.org. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. See also FAO (2000) Global Forest Resources Assessment Report, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Grierson AJC, and Long DG (1983–1987), Flora of Bhutan Volume 1 (Part 1, 2, and 3). In addition, see NCD (2003) Biodiversity conservation project 2 – community-based biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. Project Proposal submitted to Sustainable Development Secretariat, Thimphu.
- 31.
DoFPS (2016).
- 32.
See DoFPS (2016). National snow leopard camera trap survey for population estimation 2014–2016. October 2016. Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu.
- 33.
http://www.kuenselonline.com/422-black-necked-cranes-arrive-in-bhutan/. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 34.
http://en.wwfchina.org/en/what_we_do/species/fs/black_necked_crane/. Accessed 25 Aug 2016.
- 35.
BirdLife International (2003) Saving Asia’s threatened birds: a guide for government and civil society.
- 36.
http://www.ukbms.org/About.aspx. See also Larsen T (1994) Butterflies of Egypt. Saudi Aramco World 45(5):24–27.
Miller M (1993) The Gods and symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27928-1.
“Checklist of Butterflies of Bhutan” (PDF).
- 37.
Additional useful references for Bhutan’s national parks and biodiversity documentation: NCD (2003) Bhutan biological conservation complex: a landscape conservation plan.
NCD (2001) Black Mountain National Park: conservation management plan January 2001–June 2002. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
NCD (2001) Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary: conservation management plan July 2001–June 2007. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
NCD (2002) Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary: conservation management plan July 2001–June 2007, Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu, NCD 2002.
NCD (2003) Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park: conservation management plan July 2003–June 2007, Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
NCD (2003) Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park: conservation management plan July 2003–June 2007. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
NCD (2007) Biological corridor rules, 2007. Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu.
NEC (2000) Environmental assessment act, 2000. National Environment Commission, Thimphu.
NEC (2002) Regulation for the environmental clearance of projects.
NEC (1998) The middle path: Bhutan’s national environment strategy, National Environment Commission, Thimphu.
RSPN (2007) Strengthening the protection and Management of Phobjikha Conservation Area Project Evaluation Report, Royal Society for the protection of Nature, Thimphu.
RSPN (2007) White-bellied heron: half-yearly project report (January–June 2007. Royal Society for the Protection of Nature, Thimphu
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Tshewang, U., Morrison, J.G., Tobias, M.C. (2018). National Parks, Protected Areas, and Wildlife Sanctuaries. In: Bionomics in the Dragon Kingdom. Fascinating Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94655-9_2
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