Abstract
Parenting and children’s development function in a family system that involves many biological factors that interact with the environment and the parent–child relationship. There has been rapid growth in parenting research that incorporates indirect and direct measures of a variety of biological factors, in the hope of better articulating the mechanisms of child and family development, as well as improving the efficacy of interventions to improve developmental and parenting outcomes. In the current chapter, we review this literature, with particular emphasis on genetics, neural structure and function, and hormones. We provide an overview of the major methodological approaches used, and findings pertaining to key dimensions of parenting and parent–child relationships (e.g., warmth, conflict, attachment), and children’s cognitive and social-emotional development. The chapter also points to gaps in knowledge and new directions that will be fruitful for basic and applied research in future.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Abraham, E., Hendler, T., Shapira-Lichter, I., Kanat-Maymon, Y., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2014). Father’s brain is sensitive to childcare experiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(27), 9792–9797. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402569111
Ahnert, L., Gunnar, M. R., Lamb, M. E., & Barthel, M. (2004). Transition to child care: Associations with infant–mother attachment, infant negative emotion, and cortisol elevations. Child Development, 75(3), 639–650. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00698.x
Almas, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Radulescu, A., Nelson, C. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Fox, N. A. (2012). Effects of early intervention and the moderating effects of brain activity on institutionalized children’s social skills at age 8. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(Suppl 2), 17228–17231. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1121256109/-/DCSupplemental
Altintas, E., & Sullivan, O. (2017). Trends in fathers’ contribution to housework and childcare under different welfare policy regimes. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, 24(1), 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxw007
Apter-Levi, Y., Pratt, M., Vakart, A., Feldman, M., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2016). Maternal depression across the first years of life compromises child psychosocial adjustment; relations to child HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 64, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.11.006
Avinun, R., & Knafo, A. (2014). Parenting as a reaction evoked by children’s genotype: A meta analysis of children-as-twins studies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498308
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Pijlman, F. T., Mesman, J., & Juffer, F. (2008). Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers’ externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 44, 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.293
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Riem, M. M., Tops, M., & Alink, L. R. (2012). Oxytocin decreases handgrip force in reaction to infant crying in females without harsh parenting experiences. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(8), 951–957. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr067
Barry, R. A., Kochanska, G., & Philibert, R. A. (2008). G× E interaction in the organization of attachment: Mothers’ responsiveness as a moderator of children’s genotypes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(12), 1313–1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01935.x
Bauer, P. M., Hanson, J. L., Pierson, R. K., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2009). Cerebellar volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation. Biological Psychiatry, 66(12), 1100–1106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.014
Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Hardin, E. E., Baldwin, C. M., & Kline, J. P. (1998). Differential resting quantitative electroencephalographic alpha patterns in women with environmental chemical intolerance, depressives, and normals. Biological Psychiatry, 43(5), 376–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00245-X
Bernard, K., & Dozier, M. (2010). Examining infants’ cortisol responses to laboratory tasks among children varying in attachment disorganization: Stress reactivity or return to baseline? Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1771–1778. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020660
Berry, D., Deater-Deckard, K., McCartney, K., Wang, Z., & Petrill, S. A. (2013). Gene–environment interaction between DRD4 7-repeat VNTR and early maternal sensitivity predicts inattention trajectories across middle childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21105
Berryessa, C. M., & Cho, M. K. (2013). Ethical, legal, social, and policy implications of behavioral genetics. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 14, 515–534. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-090711-163743
Bigler, E. D., Mortensen, S., Neeley, E. S., Ozonoff, S., Krasny, L., Johnson, M., … Lainhart, J. E. (2007). Superior temporal gyrus, language function, and autism. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31(2), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640701190841
Bremner, J. D., Vythilingam, M., Vermetten, E., Southwick, S. M., McGlashan, T., Nazeer, A., & Ng, C. K. (2003). MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(5), 924–932. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.924
Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of self-regulation: A multidisciplinary review and integrative conceptual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 602–654. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038662
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.101.4.568
Brooker, R. J., & Buss, K. A. (2014). Toddler fearfulness is linked to individual differences in error-related negativity during preschool. Developmental Neuropsychology, 39(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2013.826661
Brussoni, M. J., Jang, K. L., Livesley, W., & Macbeth, T. M. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on adult attachment styles. Personal Relationships, 7(3), 283–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00017.x
Buchheim, A., Erk, S., George, C., Kächele, H., Ruchsow, M., Spitzer, M., & Walter, H. (2006). Measuring attachment representation in an fMRI environment: A pilot study. Psychopathology, 39(3), 144–152. https://doi.org/10.1159/000091800
Burgess, K. B., Marshall, P. J., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2003). Infant attachment and temperament as predictors of subsequent externalizing problems and cardiac physiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(6), 819–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00167
Calkins, S. D., Graziano, P. A., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Cardiac vagal regulation differentiates among children at risk for behavior problems. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.005
Carrion, V. G., Garrett, A., Menon, V., Weems, C. F., & Reiss, A. L. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and brain function during a response-inhibition task: An fMRI study in youth. Depression and Anxiety, 25(6), 514–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20346
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297(5582), 851–854. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1072290
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of attachment (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Chavis, J. M., & Kisley, M. A. (2012). Adult attachment and motivated attention to social images: Attachment-based differences in event-related brain potentials to emotional images. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.12.004
Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Muzik, O., Juhász, C., Nagy, F., & Chugani, D. C. (2001). Local brain functional activity following early deprivation: A study of postinstitutionalized Romanian orphans. Neuroimage, 14(6), 1290–1301. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0917
Cohen, M., & Shaver, P. (2004). Avoidant attachment and hemispheric lateralisation of the processing of attachment- and emotion-related words. Cognition and Emotion, 18(6), 799–813. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930341000266
Connell, A. M., Dawson, G., Danzo, S., & McKillop, H. (2017). The psychophysiology of parenting: Individual differences in autonomic reactivity to positive and negative mood inductions and observed parental affect during dyadic interactions with children. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(1), 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000278
Cooke, L. P., & Baxter, J. (2010). “Families” in international context: Comparing institutional effects across Western societies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 516–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00716.x
Crawford, T. N., Livesley, W. J., Jang, K. L., Shaver, P. R., Cohen, P., & Ganiban, J. (2007). Insecure attachment and personality disorder: A twin study of adults. European Journal of Personality, 21(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.602
Dan, O., & Raz, S. (2012). Adult attachment and emotional processing biases: An event-related potentials (ERPs) study. Biological Psychology, 91(2), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.06.003
Dawson, G., Ashman, S. B., Hessl, D., Spieker, S., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., & Embry, L. (2001). Autonomic and brain electrical activity in securely- and insecurely-attached infants of depressed mothers. Infant Behavior and Development, 24(2), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(01)00075-3
De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Shifflett, H., Iyengar, S., Beers, S. R., Hall, J., & Moritz, G. (2002). Brain structures in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A sociodemographically matched study. Biological Psychiatry, 52(11), 1066–1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01459-2
Deater-Deckard, K., & Bell, M. A. (2017). Maternal executive function, heart rate, and EEG alpha reactivity interact in the prediction of harsh parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000286
Deater-Deckard, K., Chen, N., & El Mallah, S. (2016). Gene-environment interplay in coercion. In T. Dishion & J. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of coercive dynamics in close relationships (pp. 23–38). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Deater-Deckard, K., Li, M., & Bell, M. A. (2016). Multi-faceted emotion regulation, stress, and affect in mothers of young children. Cognition and Emotion, 30(3-4), 444–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1013087
Deater-Deckard, K., & Panneton, R. (2017). Parental stress and early child development: Adaptive and maladaptive outcomes. New York, NY: Springer.
Deater-Deckard, K., & Sturge-Apple, M. (2017). Mind and matter: New insights on the role of parental cognitive and neurobiological functioning in process models of parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(1), 5–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000300
Demkow, U., & Ploski, R. (2016). Clinical applications for next-generation sequencing. New York, NY: Academic Press.
DeWall, C. N., Masten, C. L., Powell, C., Combs, D., Schurtz, D. R., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). Do neural responses to rejection depend on attachment style? An fMRI study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(2), 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsq107
Donges, U. S., Kugel, H., Stuhrmann, A., Grotegerd, D., Redlich, R., Lichev, V., & Dannlowski, U. (2012). Adult attachment anxiety is associated with enhanced automatic neural response to positive facial expression. Neuroscience, 220, 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.036
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J. P., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20(03), 845–859. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000400
Drake, K., Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. (2014). From early attachment to engagement with learning in school: The role of self-regulation and persistence. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1350. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032779
El-Sheikh, M., Harger, J., & Whitson, S. M. (2001). Exposure to interparental conflict and children’s adjustment and physical health: The moderating role of vagal tone. Child Development, 72(6), 1617–1636. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00369
Eluvathingal, T. J., Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Juhász, C., Muzik, O., Maqbool, M., & Makki, M. (2006). Abnormal brain connectivity in children after early severe socioemotional deprivation: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Pediatrics, 117(6), 2093–2100. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1727
Escobar, M. J., Rivera-Rei, A., Decety, J., Huepe, D., Cardona, J. F., Canales-Johnson, A., & Manes, F. (2013). Attachment patterns trigger differential neural signature of emotional processing in adolescents. PLoS One, 8(8), e70247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070247
Fearon, P., Shmueli-Goetz, Y., Viding, E., Fonagy, P., & Plomin, R. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on adolescent attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(9), 1033–1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12171
Feldman, R., Gordon, I., Schneiderman, I., Weisman, O., & Zagoory-Sharon, O. (2010). Natural variations in maternal and paternal care are associated with systematic changes in oxytocin following parent–infant contact. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(8), 1133–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.013
Fisher, P. A., Gunnar, M. R., Dozier, M., Bruce, J., & Pears, K. C. (2006). Effects of therapeutic interventions for foster children on behavioral problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1376.023
Fox, N. A., Nichols, K. E., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K., Schmidt, L., Hamer, D., & Pine, D. S. (2005). Evidence for a gene-environment interaction in predicting behavioral inhibition in middle childhood. Psychological Science, 16, 921–926. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01637.x
Fraley, R. C., Roisman, G. I., Booth-LaForce, C., Owen, M. T., & Holland, A. S. (2013). Interpersonal and genetic origins of adult attachment styles: A longitudinal study from infancy to early adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(5), 817–838. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031435
Francis, D. D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999). Maternal care and the development of stress responses. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9(1), 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80016-6
Fries, A. B. W., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2008). Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(6), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20319
Gilissen, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Linting, M. (2008). Electrodermal reactivity during the Trier Social Stress Test for children: Interaction between the serotonin transporter polymorphism and children’s attachment representation. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(6), 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20314
Gillath, O., Bunge, S. A., Shaver, P. R., Wendelken, C., & Mikulincer, M. (2005). Attachment-style differences in the ability to suppress negative thoughts: Exploring the neural correlates. Neuroimage, 28(4), 835–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.048
Gotlib, I. H., Ranganath, C., & Rosenfeld, J. P. (1998). Frontal EEG alpha asymmetry, depression and cognitive functioning. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 449–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379673
Hahn, H. (2015). Federal expenditures on children: What budget policy means for children’s policy. Society for Research in. Child Development Social Policy Report, 29(1), 1–17.
Han, Z. R., Zhang, X., Cui, L., & Yan, J. (2017). The heart of parenting: Parent HR dynamics and negative parenting while resolving conflict with child. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(1), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000285
Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(22), 7466–7472. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0859-10.2010
Hatemi, P. K., & McDermott, R. (2011). Man is by nature a political animal: Evolution, biology, and politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Calkins, S. D., Granger, D. A., Moore, G. A., ... & Cox, M. J. (2008). Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(4), 361–376.
Hood, K., Halpern, C., Greenberg, G., & Lerner, R. (2010). Handbook of developmental science, behavior, and genetics. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Horwitz, B., & Neiderhiser, J. (Eds.). (2015). Gene-environment interplay in interpersonal relationships over the lifespan. New York, NY: Springer.
Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). The developmental effects of early life stress: An overview of current theoretical frameworks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(5), 400–406.
Huffmeijer, R., Alink, L. R., Tops, M., Grewen, K. M., Light, K. C., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2013). The impact of oxytocin administration and maternal love withdrawal on event-related potential (ERP) responses to emotional faces with performance feedback. Hormones and Behavior, 63(3), 399–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.11.008
Johnson, K., Page, A., Williams, H., Wassemer, E., & Whitehouse, W. (2002). The use of melatonin as an alternative to sedation in uncooperative children undergoing an MRI examination. Clinical Radiology, 57(6), 502–506. https://doi.org/10.1053/crad.2001.0923
Johnstone, T., Kim, M. J., & Whalen, P. J. (2009). Functional magnetic resonance imaging in the affective and social neurosciences. In E. Harmon-Jones & J. Beer (Eds.), Methods in social neuroscience (pp. 313–335). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Buffering children from marital conflict and dissolution. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2602_4
Kim, P., Leckman, J., Mayes, L., Feldman, R., Wang, X., & Swain, J. (2010). The plasticity of human maternal brain: Longitudinal changes in brain anatomy during the early postpartum period. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124(5), 695–700. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020884
Knopik, A., Neiderhiser, J., DeFries, J., & Plomin, R. (2016). Behavioral genetics (7th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2013). Early attachment organization with both parents and future behavior problems: From infancy to middle childhood. Child Development, 84(1), 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01852.x
Koss, K. J., Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., Hetzel, S., & Cicchetti, D. (2016). Harsh parenting and serotonin transporter and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms as predictors of adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1220311
Laurent, H., & Powers, S. I. (2007). Emotion regulation in emerging adult couples: Temperament, attachment, and HPA response to conflict. Biological Psychology, 76, 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.06.002
Lefaucheur, J. P., Antal, A., Ayache, S. S., Benninger, D. H., Brunelin, J., Cogiamanian, F., & Marangolo, P. (2017). Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clinical Neurophysiology, 128(1), 56–92.
Lemche, E., Giampietro, V. P., Surguladze, S. A., Amaro, E. J., Andrew, C. M., Williams, S. C., … Simmons, A. (2006). Human attachment security is mediated by the amygdala: Evidence from combined fMRI and psychophysiological measures. Human Brain Mapping, 27(8), 623–635. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20206
Luby, J., Belden, A., Botteron, K., Marrus, N., Harms, M. P., Babb, C., & Barch, D. (2013). The effects of poverty on childhood brain development: The mediating effect of caregiving and stressful life events. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(12), 1135–1142. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.3139
Luijk, M. P., Velders, F. P., Tharner, A., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., … Tiemeier, H. (2010). FKBP5 and resistant attachment predict cortisol reactivity in infants: Gene–environment interaction. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(10), 1454–1461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.04.012
Matthews, S. G. (2002). Early programming of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, 13(9), 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1043-2760(02)00690-2
McLaughlin, K. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2011). Adverse rearing environments and neural development in children: The development of frontal electroencephalogram asymmetry. Biological Psychiatry, 70(11), 1008–1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.08.006
Meinlschmidt, G., & Heim, C. (2007). Sensitivity to intranasal oxytocin in adult men with early parental separation. Biological Psychiatry, 61(9), 1109–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.007
Meyer, A., Hajcak, G., Torpey-Newman, D. C., Kujawa, A., & Klein, D. N. (2015). Enhanced error-related brain activity in children predicts the onset of anxiety disorders between the ages of 6 and 9. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(2), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000044
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Garrett-Peters, P., Barnett, M., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., & Cox, M. J. (2011). Father contributions to cortisol responses in infancy and toddlerhood. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 388–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021066
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C. B., Gariepy, J. L., Blair, C., Garrett-Peters, P., & Cox, M. J. (2007). Bidirectional genetic and environmental influences on mother and child behavior: The family system as the unit of analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1073–1087. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407000545
Mueller, S. C., Maheu, F. S., Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Mandell, D., Leibenluft, E., & Ernst, M. (2010). Early-life stress is associated with impairment in cognitive control in adolescence: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 48(10), 3037–3044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.06.013
Neumann, I. D. (2008). Brain oxytocin: A key regulator of emotional and social behaviors in both females and males. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 20(6), 858–865. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.2008.01726.x
Ng, M. Y., & Weisz, J. R. (2016). Annual research review: Building a science of personalized intervention for youth mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(3), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12470
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2002). Early child care and children’s development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. American Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 133–164.
Nomaguchi, K., & Milkie, M. (2017). Sociological perspectives on parenting stress: How social structure and culture shape parental strain and the well-being of parents and children. In K. Deater-Deckard & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental stress and early child development: Adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (pp. 47–73). New York, NY: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4_3
O’Connor, T. G., & Croft, C. M. (2001). A twin study of attachment in preschool children. Child Development, 72, 1501–1511. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00362
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81(1), 270–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.x
Olvet, D. M., & Hajcak, G. (2008). The error-related negativity (ERN) and psychopathology: Toward an endophenotype. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(8), 1343–1354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.07.003
Oosterman, M., De Schipper, J. C., Fisher, P., Dozier, M., & Schuengel, C. (2010). Autonomic reactivity in relation to attachment and early adversity among foster children. Development and Psychopathology, 22(01), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990290
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development/OECD. (2017). Key characteristics of parental leave systems (PF2.1). Retrieved May 13, 2017, from https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_leave_systems.pdf
Parker, S. W., & Nelson, C. A. (2005). The impact of early institutional rearing on the ability to discriminate facial expressions of emotion: An event related potential study. Child Development, 76(1), 54–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00829.x
Patton, D., Costich, J. F., & Lidströmer, N. (2017). Paid parental leave policies and infant mortality rates in OECD countries: Policy implications for the United States. World Medical and Health Policy, 9(1), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/wmh3.214
Peltola, M. J., Yrttiaho, S., Puura, K., Proverbio, A. M., Mononen, N., Lehtimäki, T., & Leppänen, J. M. (2014). Motherhood and oxytocin receptor genetic variation are associated with selective changes in electrocortical responses to infant facial expressions. Emotion, 14(3), 469–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035959
Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., Nelson, J. A., Leerkes, E. M., & Marcovitch, S. (2012). Mothers’ responses to children’s negative emotions and child emotion regulation: The moderating role of vagal suppression. Developmental Psychobiology, 54(5), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20608
Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children’s recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 784. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.784
Porges, S. W. (2003). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic contributions to social behavior. Physiology and Behavior, 79(3), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00156-2
Powers, S. I., Pietromonaco, P. R., Gunlicks, M., & Sayer, A. (2006). Dating couples’ attachment styles and patterns of cortisol reactivity and recovery in response to a relationship conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 613–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.613
Propper, C., Moore, G. A., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Halpern, T., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Calkins, S. D., & Cox, M. (2008). Gene-environment contributions to the development of infant vagal reactivity: The interaction of dopamine and maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 79, 1377–1394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01194.x
Proverbio, A. M., Brignone, V., Matarazzo, S., Del Zotto, M., & Zani, A. (2006). Gender and parental status affect the visual cortical response to infant facial expression. Neuropsychologia, 44(14), 2987–2999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.015
Purhonen, M., Kilpeläinen-Lees, R., Pääkkönen, A., Yppärilä, H., Lehtonen, J., & Karhu, J. (2001). Effects of maternity on auditory event-related potentials to human sound. Neuroreport, 12(13), 2975–2979.
Rodrigo, M. J., León, I., Quiñones, I., Lage, A., Byrne, S., & Bobes, M. A. (2011). Brain and personality bases of insensitivity to infant cues in neglectful mothers: An event-related potential study. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000714
Rognoni, E., Galati, D., Costa, T., & Crini, M. (2008). Relationship between adult attachment patterns, emotional experience and EEG frontal asymmetry. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(4), 909–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.021
Roisman, G. I. (2007). The psychophysiology of adult attachment relationships: Autonomic reactivity in marital and premarital interactions. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.39
Roisman, G. I., & Fraley, R. C. (2008). A behavior genetic study of parenting quality, infant attachment security, and their covariation in a nationally representative sample. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 831–839. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.831
Roisman, G. I., Madsen, S. D., Hennighausen, K. H., Sroufe, L. A., & Collins, W. A. (2001). The coherence of dyadic behavior across parent-child and romantic relationships as mediated by the internalized representation of experience. Attachment and Human Development, 3(2), 156–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730126483
Roisman, G. I., Tsai, J. L., & Chiang, K. H. S. (2004). The emotional integration of childhood experience: Physiological, facial expressive, and self-reported emotional response during the adult attachment interview. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 776–789. https://doi.org/10.1037/00121649.40.5.776
Ross, H. E., & Young, L. J. (2009). Oxytocin and the neural mechanisms regulating social cognition and affiliative behavior. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 30(4), 534–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.05.004
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21(1), 55–89. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389
Schieche, M., & Spangler, G. (2005). Individual differences in biobehavioral organization during problem-solving in toddlers: The influence of maternal behavior, infant–mother attachment, and behavioral inhibition on the attachment-exploration balance. Developmental Psychobiology, 46(4), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20065
Schmidt, L. A., & Segalowitz, S. J. (Eds.). (2008). Developmental psychophysiology: Theory, systems, and methods. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Shackman, J. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2014). Impact of physical maltreatment on the regulation of negative affect and aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4pt1), 1021–1033. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000546
Shackman, J. E., Shackman, A. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2007). Physical abuse amplifies attention to threat and increases anxiety in children. Emotion, 7(4), 838–852. https://doi.org/10.1037/15283542.7.4.838
Stalnaker, T. A., Cooch, N. K., & Schoenbaum, G. (2015). What the orbitofrontal cortex does not do. Nature Neuroscience, 18(5), 620–627. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3982
Stein, M. B., Schork, N. J., & Gelernter, J. (2008). Gene-by-environment (serotonin transporter and childhood maltreatment) interaction for anxiety sensitivity, an intermediate phenotype for anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301422
Suslow, T., Kugel, H., Rauch, A. V., Dannlowski, U., Bauer, J., Konrad, C., & Ohrmann, P. (2009). Attachment avoidance modulates neural response to masked facial emotion. Human Brain Mapping, 30(11), 3553–3562. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20778
Swain, J. E. (2011). The human parental brain: In vivo neuroimaging. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 35(5), 1242–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.10.017
Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2009). Claude Bernard and the heart–brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(2), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.004
Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., & Thomas, K. M. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x
van Bakel, H. J. A., & Hall, R. A. S. (2018). Parent-child relationships and attachment. In M. R. Sanders & A. Morawska (Eds.), Handbook of parenting and child development across the lifespan (pp. xx–xx). New York: Springer.
Verbeke, W. J., Pozharliev, R., Van Strien, J. W., Belschak, F., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2014). “I am resting but rest less well with you.” The moderating effect of anxious attachment style on alpha power during EEG resting state in a social context. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00486
Voelker, P., Sheese, B. E., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2009). Variations in catechol-o-methyltransferase gene interact with parenting to influence attention in early development. Neuroscience, 164, 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.059
Vrtička, P., Andersson, F., Grandjean, D., Sander, D., & Vuilleumier, P. (2008). Individual attachment style modulates human amygdala and striatum activation during social appraisal. PLoS One, 3(8), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002868
Weisman, O., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin administration to parent enhances infant physiological and behavioral readiness for social engagement. Biological Psychiatry, 72(12), 982–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.011
White, L. O., Wu, J., Borelli, J. L., Rutherford, H. J., David, D. H., Kim–Cohen, J., … Crowley, M. J. (2012). Attachment dismissal predicts frontal slow-wave ERPs during rejection by unfamiliar peers. Emotion, 12(4), 690–700. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026750
Zhang, T. Y., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the environmental regulation of the genome and its function. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 439–466. https://doi.org/10.1146/annualrev.psych.60.110707.163235
Zhang, X., Li, T., & Zhou, X. (2008). Brain responses to facial expressions by adults with different attachment–orientations. Neuroreport, 19(4), 437–441. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f55728
Zilber, A., Goldstein, A., & Mikulincer, M. (2007). Adult attachment orientations and the processing of emotional pictures–ERP correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1898–1907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.015
Disclosure
The authors declare that they have no disclosure.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Deater-Deckard, K., Chary, M., McCormick, S. (2018). Biological Factors in Parenting and Child Development. In: Sanders, M., Morawska, A. (eds) Handbook of Parenting and Child Development Across the Lifespan . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94598-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94598-9_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-94597-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-94598-9
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)