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Neural Networks and Deep Learning pp 53–104Cite as

Machine Learning with Shallow Neural Networks

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Abstract

Conventional machine learning often uses optimization and gradient-descent methods for learning parameterized models. Examples of such models include linear regression, support vector machines, logistic regression, dimensionality reduction, and matrix factorization. Neural networks are also parameterized models that are learned with continuous optimization methods.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In recent years, the sigmoid unit has fallen out of favor compared to the ReLU.

  2. 2.

    In order to obtain exactly the same direction as the Fisher method with Equation 2.8, it is important to mean-center both the feature variables and the binary targets. Therefore, each binary target will be one of two real values with different signs. The real values will contain the fraction of instances belonging to the other class. Alternatively, one can use a bias neuron to absorb the constant offsets.

  3. 3.

    This subspace is defined by the top-k singular vectors of singular value decomposition. However, the optimization problem does not impose orthogonality constraints, and therefore the columns of V might use a different non-orthogonal basis system to represent this subspace.

  4. 4.

    There is no loss in reconstruction accuracy in several special cases like the single-layer case discussed here, even on the training data. In other cases, the loss of accuracy is only on the training data, but the autoencoder tends to better reconstruct out-of-sample data because of the regularization effects of parameter footprint reduction.

  5. 5.

    The t-SNE method works on the principle is that it is impossible to preserve all pairwise similarities and dissimilarities with the same level of accuracy in a low-dimensional embedding. Therefore, unlike dimensionality reduction or autoencoders that try to faithfully reconstruct the data, it has an asymmetric loss function in terms of how similarity is treated versus dissimilarity. This type of asymmetric loss function is particularly helpful for separating out different manifolds during visualization. Therefore, t-SNE might perform better than autoencoders at visualization.

  6. 6.

    The work in [287] does point out a number of implicit relationships with matrix factorization, but not the more direct ones pointed out in this book. Some of these relationships are also pointed out in [6].

  7. 7.

    There is a slight abuse of notation in the updates adding \(\overline{u}_{i}\) and \(\overline{v}_{j}\). This is because \(\overline{u}_{i}\) is a row vector and \(\overline{v}_{j}\) is a column vector. Throughout this section, we omit the explicit transposition of one of these two vectors to avoid notational clutter, since the updates are intuitively clear.

  8. 8.

    This fact is not evident in the toy example of Figure 2.17. In practice, the degree of a node is a tiny fraction of the total number of nodes. For example, a person might have 100 friends in a social network of millions of nodes.

  9. 9.

    The weighted degree of node j is ∑ r c rj.

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    Charu C. Aggarwal

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Aggarwal, C.C. (2018). Machine Learning with Shallow Neural Networks. In: Neural Networks and Deep Learning. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94463-0_2

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