Abstract
Grazing-based livestock production, named pastoralism, is classified into nomadism, transhumance and agro-pastoralism. Transhumance is characterised by the seasonal and recurring movement of livestock whereby seasonal grazing areas and routes for livestock movement are fixed. All grazing based livestock production systems including transhumance are constrained globally for a variety of reasons. The major threats to the system are globalisation, nationalisation or privatisation of rangelands, national parks and community forestry policies restricting free grazing and shortage of labour. The collapse or decline of such social-ecological systems (SESs), which have existed for over 1000s years, often induces adverse impacts on societies and ecosystems. Here we review the literature on transhumance, and discuss reasons for transhumance, and the associated advantages and disadvantages of livestock movement in transhumance. Our review also focuses on how the integration of crop and livestock production in transhumance derives mutual benefits. The review indicates that the seasonal movement of livestock is an ecological necessity in areas with harsh climates and low pasture production. Transhumance is also a herders’ adaptive management to adjust to variable grazing resources and environmental conditions. The disadvantages of seasonal movement of livestock such as greater herding labour required and expenditure of more energy for livestock, are far outweighed by the ecological advantages. Some of these are: to minimise grazing competition and to protect rangeland pastures from being overgrazed. Our review also indicates that the integration of crop and livestock production derives mutual benefits and contributes for their enhanced sustainability.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adriansen HK (2006) Continuity and change in pastoral livelihoods of Senegalese Fulani. Agric Hum Values 23:215–229
Akasbi Z, Oldeland J, Dengler J, Finckh M (2012) Social and ecological constraints on decision making by transhumant pastoralists: a case study from the Moroccan Atlas Mountains. J Mt Sci 9:307–321
Aryal S (2015) The socio-ecological impacts of structural changes in the transhumance system of the mountainous area of Nepal. University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Aryal S, Cockfield G, Maraseni T (2014a) Vulnerability of Himalayan transhumant communities to climate change. Clim Change 125:193–208
Aryal S, Maraseni T, Cockfield G (2014b) Sustainability of transhumance grazing systems under socio-economic threats in Langtang Nepal. J Mt Sci 11:1023–1034
Aryal S, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2016) Perceived changes in climatic variables and impacts on the transhumance system in the Himalayas. Clim Dev 8:435–456
Aryal S, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2017) Globalisation and traditional social-ecological systems: understanding impacts of tourism and labour migration to the transhumance systems in the Himalayas. Environ Dev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.09.001
Ayantunde A, De Leeuw J, Turner M, Said M (2011) Challenges of assessing the sustainability of (agro)-pastoral systems. Livest Sci 139:30–43
Banjade MR, Paudel NS (2008) Mobile pastoralism in crisis: challenges, conflicts and status of pasture tenure in Nepal mountains. J Forest Livelihood 7:36–48
Banskota M (2000) The Hindu Kush-Himalayas: searching for viable socioeconomic and environmental options. In: Banskota M, Papola TS, Richter J (eds) Growth, poverty alleviation, and sustainable resource management in the mountain areas of South Asia. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, pp 57–106
Bauer K (2000) The cultural ecology of yak production in Dolpo. West Nepal, Yak production in central Asian highlands, pp 4–9
Bauer KM (2004) High frontiers: Dolpo and the changing world of Himalayan pastoralists. Columbia University Press, New York
Bell LW, Moore AD (2012) Integrated crop–livestock systems in Australian agriculture: trends, drivers and implications. Agric Syst 111:1–12
Bell LW, Moore AD, Kirkegaard JA (2014) Evolution in crop–livestock integration systems that improve farm productivity and environmental performance in Australia. Eur J Agron 57:10–20
Bernués A, Ruiz R, Olaizola A, Villalba D, Casasús I (2011) Sustainability of pasture-based livestock farming systems in the European Mediterranean context: synergies and trade-offs. Livest Sci 139:44–57
Bhasin V (2011) Pastoralists of Himalayas. J Hum Ecol 33:147–177
Biber JP (2010) Transhumance in France. Pastor 91–98
Bishop NH (1989) From zomo to yak: change in a Sherpa village. Hum Ecol 17:177–204
Boelman NT, Gough L, Wingfield J, Goetz S, Asmus A, Chmura HE, Krause JS, Perez JH, Sweet SK, Guay KC (2015) Greater shrub dominance alters breeding habitat and food resources for migratory songbirds in Alaskan arctic tundra. Glob Change Biol 21:1508–1520
Brottem L, Turner MD, Butt B, Singh A (2014) Biophysical variability and pastoral rights to resources: West African transhumance revisited. Hum Ecol 42:351–365
Brower B (1992) Sherpa of Khumbu: people, livestock, and landscape. Oxford University Press
Bruegger RA, Jigjsuren O, Fernández-Giménez ME (2014) Herder observations of rangeland change in Mongolia: indicators, causes, and application to community-based management. Rangel Ecol Manag 67:119–131
Chakravarty-Kaul M (1998) Transhumance and customary pastoral rights in Himachal Pradesh: claiming the high pastures for Gaddis. Mt Res Dev 18:5–17
Chaudhary RP, Aase T, Vetaas OR (2007) Globalisation and people’s livelihood: assessment and prediction for Manang, trans-Himalayas, Nepal. In: Chaudhary RP, Aase T, Vetaas O, Subedi B (eds) Local effects of global changes in the Himalayas: Manang, Nepal. Tribhuvan University Nepal and University of Bergen, Norway, pp 1–22
Devendra C (2007) Perspectives on animal production systems in Asia. Livestock Sci 106:1–18
Devendra C, Thomas D (2002) Crop–animal interactions in mixed farming systems in Asia. Agric Syst 71:27–40
Dong S, Lassoie J, Yan Z, Sharma E, Shrestha K, Pariyar D (2007) Indigenous rangeland resource management in the mountainous areas of northern Nepal: a case study from the Rasuwa District. Rang J 29:149–160
Dong S, Lassoie JP, Shrestha KK, Yan Z, Sharma E, Pariyar D (2009a) Institutional development for sustainable rangeland resource and ecosystem management in mountainous areas of northern Nepal. J Environ Manag 90:994–1003
Dullinger S, Dirnböck T, Greimler J, Grabherr G (2003) A resampling approach for evaluating effects of pasture abandonment on subalpine plant species diversity. J Veg Sci 14:243–252
Erenstein O, Thorpe W (2010) Crop–livestock interactions along agro-ecological gradients: a meso-level analysis in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, India. Environ Dev Sustain 12:669–689
FAO (2001) Pastoralism in new millennium: FAO animal production and health paper 150. Food and Agriculture Organisation
Farooquee NA (1998) Development and the eradication of traditional resource use practice in the Central Himalayan transhumant pastoral society. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 5:43–50
Fernandez-Gimenez ME, Le Febre S (2006) Mobility in pastoral systems: dynamic flux or downward trend? Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 13:341–362
Fisher JF (1990) Sherpas: reflections of change in Himalayan Nepal. University of California Press, California
Forbes BC, Stammler F, Kumpula T, Meschtyb N, Pajunen A, Kaarlejärvi E (2009) High resilience in the Yamal-Nenets social–ecological system, West Siberian Arctic, Russia. Proc National Acad Sci 106:22041–22048
Fratkin E, Roth EA, Nathan MA (2004) Pastoral sedentarization and its effects on children’s diet, health, and growth among Rendille of Northern Kenya. Hum Ecol 32:531–559
Galaty JG, Johnson DL (1990) The world of pastoralism: herding systems in comparative perspective. Guilford Press, Montreal
Geddes DS (1983) Neolithic transhumance in the Mediterranean Pyrenees. World Archaeol 15:51–66
Gonin A, Gautier D (2015) Shift in herders’ territorialities from regional to local scale: the political ecology of pastoral herding in western Burkina Faso. Pastor 5:1–12
Guillet D, Godoy RA, Guksch CE, Kawakita J, Love TF, Matter M, Orlove BS (1983) Toward a cultural ecology of mountains: the Central Andes and the Himalayas compared [and comments and reply]. Curr Anthr 24:561–574
Herrero M, Thornton P, Notenbaert A, Wood S, Msangi S, Freeman H, Bossio D, Dixon J, Peters M, Steeg J (2010) Smart investments in sustainable food production: revisiting mixed crop-livestock systems. Sci 327:822–825
Herzog F, Bunce RGH, Pérez-Soba M, Jongman RHG, Sal AG, Austad I (2005) Policy options to support transhumance and biodiversity in European Mountains: a report on the transhumount stakeholder workshop, Landquart/Zurich, Switzerland, 26–28 May 2004. Mt. Res Dev 25:82–84
Huband S, McCracken DI, Mertens A (2010) Long and short-distance transhumant pastoralism in Romania: past and present drivers of change. Pastor 1:55–71
ICIMOD (1997) Rangelands. In: ICIMOD (ed), Newsletters. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IFAD (2010) Integrated crop-livestock farming systems. International Fund for Agricultural Development; Livestock Thematic Paper, Rome, Italy
Jones S (2005) Transhumance re-examined. J Royal Anthr Inst 11:357–359
Juler C (2014) După coada oilor: long-distance transhumance and its survival in Romania. Pastor 4:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-7136-4-4
Jurt C, Häberli I, Rossier R (2015) Transhumance farming in Swiss mountains: adaptation to a changing environment. Mt Res Dev 35:57–65
Kerven C, Behnke R (2011) Policies and practices of pastoralism in Europe. Pastor 1:1–5
Körner C, Ohsawa M, Spehn E, Berge E, Bugmann H, Groombridge B, Hamilton L, Hofer T, Ives J, Jodha N, Messerli B, Pratt J, Price M, Reasoner M, Rodgers A, Thonell J, Yoshino M (2005) Mountain systems. In: Hassan R, Scholes R, Ash N (eds) Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Island Press, Washington DC, pp 681–716
Letty B, Alcock R (2013) Crop–livestock interactions: implications for policy-makers and for farmers. Afr J Range Forage Sci 30:45–50
Marini L, Klimek S, Battisti A (2011) Mitigating the impacts of the decline of traditional farming on mountain landscapes and biodiversity: a case study in the European Alps. Environ Sci Policy 14:258–267
McAllister RR, Gordon IJ, Janssen MA, Abel N (2006) Pastoralists’ responses to variation of rangeland resources in time and space. Ecol Appl 16:572–583
McCarthy N, Di Gregorio M (2007) Climate variability and flexibility in resource access: the case of pastoral mobility in Northern Kenya. Environ Dev Econ 12:403–421
McVeigh C (2004) Himalayan herding is alive and well: the economics of pastoralism in the Langtang valley. Nomadic Peoples 8:107–124
Mearns R (2004) Pastoralism and sustainable livelihoods in Mongolia. Dev Change 35:105–106
Miehe G, Miehe S, Kaiser K, Reudenbach C, Behrendes L, Schlütz F (2009) How old is pastoralism in Tibet? An ecological approach to the making of a Tibetan landscape. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 276:130–147
MoCTCA (2009) Nepal Tourism Statistics 2008. Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu
MoCTCA (2014) Nepal Tourism Statistics 2013. Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu
Moktan MR, Norbu L, Nirola H, Dukpa K, Rai TB, Dorji R (2008) Ecological and social aspects of transhumant herding in Bhutan. Mt Res Dev 28:41–48
Montero RG, Mathieu J, Singh C (2009) Mountain pastoralism 1500–2000: an introduction. Nomadic Peoples 13:1–16
Namgay K, Millar J, Black R, Samdup T (2013) Transhumant agro-pastoralism in Bhutan: exploring contemporary practices and socio-cultural traditions. Pastor 3:1–26
Namgay K, Millar JE, Black RS, Samdup T (2014) Changes in transhumant agro-pastoralism in Bhutan: a disappearing livelihood? Hum Ecol 42:779–792
NARC (1996) Techincal Report 1995/1996. Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Animal Nutrition Division, Kathmandu, Nepal
Niamir-Fuller M (1998) The resilience of pastoral herding in Sahelian Africa. In: Berkes F, Folke C (eds) Linking social and ecological systems: management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, pp 250–284
Nyima Y (2014) A larger herd size as a symbol of wealth? The fallacy of the cattle complex theory in Tibetan pastoralism. AREA 46:186–193
Nyong A, Adesina F, Elasha BO (2007) The value of indigenous knowledge in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitig Adapt Strategies Glob Change 12:787–797
Nyssen J, Descheemaeker K, Zenebe A, Poesen J, Deckers J, Haile M (2009) Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia). Mt Res Dev 29:255–264
Olea PP, Mateo-Tomás P (2009) The role of traditional farming practices in ecosystem conservation: the case of transhumance and vultures. Biol Conserv 142:1844–1853
Osuji PO (1974) The Physiology of Eating and the Energy Expenditure of the Ruminant at Pasture. J Range Manag 27:437–443
Oteros-Rozas E, Gonzalez JA, Martin-Lopez B, Lopez CA, Montes C (2012) Ecosystem services and social-ecological resilience in transhumance cultural landscape: learning from the past, looking for a future. In: Plieninger T, Bieling C (eds) Resilience and the cultural landscape: understanding and managing change in human-shaped environments. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 242–260
Oteros-Rozas E, Ontillera-Sánchez R, Sanosa P, Gómez-Baggethun E, Reyes-García V, González J (2013a) Traditional ecological knowledge among transhumant pastoralists in Mediterranean Spain. Ecol Soc 18:33
Pawson I, Jest C (1978) The high-altitude areas of the world and their cultures. In: Baker P (ed), The biology of high altitude peoples. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 17–46
Ponel P, Andrieu-Ponel V, Djamali M, Lahijani H, Leydet M, Mashkour M (2013) Fossil beetles as possible evidence for transhumance during the middle and late Holocene in the high mountains of Talysch (Talesh) in NW Iran? Environ Archaeol 18:201–210
Ramaswamy N (1998) Draught animal welfare. Appl Anim Behav Sci 59:73–84
Rhoades RE, Thompson SI (1975) Adaptive strategies in alpine environments: beyond ecological particularism. American Ethnol 2:535–551
Seeland K (2000) National park policy and wildlife problems in Nepal and Bhutan. Popul Env 22:43–62
Sere C, Steinfeld H (1995) World livestock production systems: current status, issues and trends. Food and Agriculture Organisaiton (FAO)
Sharma LN, Vetaas OR, Chaudhary RP, Måren IE (2013) Pastoral abandonment, shrub proliferation and landscape changes: a case study from Gorkha. Nepal. Lands Res 39:53–69
Steinfeld H, Wassenaar T, Jutzi S (2006) Livestock production systems in developing countries: status, drivers, trends. Rev Sci Technol 25:505–516
Stewart NR, Belote J, Belote L (1976) Transhumance in the central Andes. Ann Assoc American Geogr 66:377–397
Thornton P, Van de Steeg J, Notenbaert A, Herrero M (2009) The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: a review of what we know and what we need to know. Agric Syst 101:113–127
Tipraqsa P, Craswell ET, Noble AD, Schmidt-Vogt D (2007) Resource integration for multiple benefits: multifunctionality of integrated farming systems in Northeast Thailand. Agric Syst 94:694–703
Turner MD, McPeak JG, Ayantunde A (2014) The role of livestock mobility in the livelihood strategies of rural peoples in semi-arid West Africa. Hum Ecol 42:231–247
Wang, Y, Wang, J, Li, S, Qin, D (2014) Vulnerability of the Tibetan pastoral systems to climate and global change. Ecol Soc 19
Wright IA, Tarawali S, Blümmel M, Gerard B, Teufel N, Herrero M (2012) Integrating crops and livestock in subtropical agricultural systems. J Sci Food Agric 92:1010–1015
Yadav Y (1992) Farming-forestry-livestock linkages: a component of mountain farmers’ strategies (Nepal). In: Jodha N, Banskota M, Partap T (eds) Sustainable mountain agriculture (Vol 1): perspectives and issues. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, pp 141–161
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Aryal, S., Maraseni, T., Cockfield, G., de Bruyn, L.L. (2018). Transhumance, Livestock Mobility and Mutual Benefits Between Crop and Livestock Production. In: Lichtfouse, E. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 31. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, vol 31. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94232-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94232-2_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-94231-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-94232-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)