The Cost of Living Becomes Unaffordable, 1913–1945

Serels, Steven

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94165-3_6

Steven Serels³

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

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Abstract

In the first half of the twentieth century, non-elite pastoralists lost the ability to cope with the normal variability of the ARSL’s natural environment because they lost access to the limited fertile zones that historically served as drought pasture reserves. Unable to cope with routine droughts, non-elite pastoralists were pushed into a cycle of famine and food insecurity. This process was not linear. There were moments of apparent recovery. For a time, Afar pastoralists prospered because they held a virtual monopoly on the transport of Ethiopian slaves to African Red Sea ports. Similarly, Eritrean pastoralists used the income from serving in the colonial army to invest in the expansion of their herds. However, these short-term booms masked deeper problems. The progressive enclosure of drought pasture reserves was making it impossible for most pastoralists to maintain themselves and their animals through the full range of normal ecological conditions.

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Notes

1.
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2.
Ali El Mirghani to Lyall, 29 April 1925, CIVSEC 2/9/38, NRO.
3.
Hewing to Director of Agriculture, 28 May 1923, CIVSEC 2/8/30, NRO.
4.
Colli to Ufficio Finanza, 14 April 1916, Pacco 804, ASDAE.
5.
Governor to Ministère des colonies, 14 February 1905, FM1AFFPOL/187/2, ANOM.
6.
Consulat de France à Dirré-Daoua, Rapport Commercial Annee 1920, 4 June 1921, FM 1AFFPOL/186, ANOM.
7.
Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1918, No. XII (1918), 6.
8.
Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1915, No. IX (1915), 24; Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1916, No. X (1916), 27; Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1918, No. XII (1918), 8.
9.
G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO.
10.
Carrora to Governatore, 20 December 1913, Pacco 645, ASDAE; G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO.
11.
Michele Checchi, Movimento Commerciale della Colonia Eritrea (Rome: Istituto Coloniale Italiano, 1912), 32–43.
12.
Il Commissariato Speciale della Citta di Asmara to Direzione degli Affari Civili, 5 March 1919, Pacco 859, ASDAE.
13.
Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, Relazione sulla fornitura dei buoi allo Stabilimento del Sembel da parte del Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, 19 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE.
14.
Stefano Bellucci and Massimo Zaccaria, ‘Wage Labour and Mobility in Colonial Eritrea, 1880s to 1920s,’ International Labor and Working-Class History, 86 (Fall 2014): 96.
15.
Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, Relazione sulla fornitura dei buoi allo Stabilimento del Sembel da parte del Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, 19 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE; Il Commissariato Regionale dello Hamasien to the Governo della Colonia, 22 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE.
16.
Fernando Santagata, La Colonia Eritrea nel Mar Rosso davanti all’Abyssinia (Naples: Libreria Internazionale Treves di Leo Lupi, 1935), 124.
17.
Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, Relazione sulla fornitura dei buoi allo Stabilimento del Sembel da parte del Commissariato Regionale dell’Acchelé Guzai, 19 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE; Il Commissariato Regionale dello Hamasien to the Governo della Colonia, 22 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE.
18.
Marco Scardigli, Il Braccio Indigeno: Ascari, Irregolari e Bande nella Conquista dell’Eritrea 1885–1911 (Milan: Franco Angeli, 1996), 171.
19.
Luigi Maria Bologna, ‘L’Avvaloramento in Eritrea’ in Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Comitato per la documentazione dell’opera dell’Italia in Africa, Italia in Africa: Serie Economic-agraria, Volume I: L’avvaloramento e la Colonizazione (Rome, 1970), 86–87.
20.
Gouverneur de la Côte Française des Somalis to Consul de France à Aden, 10 January 1918, 12PO/1/9, Centre des Archives diplomatiques, Nantes (CAD).
21.
l’Agent consulaire de France à Aden to l’Inspecter général des colonies, 8 August 1917, 12PO/1/15, CAD.
22.
Ibid.
23.
Rapport Mensuel, April 1917, FM1AFFPOL/122, ANOM.
24.
Charles Schaefer, ‘The Politics of Banking: The Bank of Abyssinia, 1905–1931,’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 25:2 (1992): 381–384.
25.
La Commission de Marseille, Relations Commerciales avec la Côte Orientale d’Afrique, 1 December 1915, FM 1AFFPOL/186, ANOM.
26.
Le Ministre des colonies to Le Ministre des Affaires Etrangères, 3 January 1928, FM1AFFPOL/696, ANOM.
27.
Consul de France à Aden to Gouverneur de la Côte Française des Somalis, 27 October 1921, 12PO/1/16, CAD.
28.
Gouverneur de la Côte Française des Somalis to Consul de France à Aden, 21 November 1918, 12PO/1/9, CAD.
29.
Gouverneur de la Côte Française des Somalis to Consul de France à Aden, 26 February 1920, 12PO/1/10, CAD.
30.
Gouverneur de la Côte Française des Somalis to Consul de France à Aden, 26 February 1920, 12PO/1/10, CAD.
31.
Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1916, No. X (1916), 6, SAD; Central Economic Board, Annual Report of the Director, Commercial Intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1918, No. XII (1918), 8, SAD.
32.
Serels, Starvation and the State, 152–153.
33.
Note on the Cattle and Sheep Trade with Egypt [n.d. 1923], CIVSEC64/3/13, NRO.
34.
At the start of the war, trade between Egypt and Ottoman ports was halted. The number of cattle imported into Egypt from the Ottoman Mediterranean declined from 31,876 head in 1913 to 1386 head in 1915. Similarly, the number of sheep imported declined from 273,249 to 1183 over the same period. Supply dried up at the same time that demand increased owing to the expanded British military presence in Egypt. British officials feared that meat shortages would lead to widespread opposition to the British presence in Egypt. So, they sought to actively develop new sources of supply. British officials initially turned to Western Sudan to make up the difference. However, this trade was limited by the maximum capacity of the rail connection between Sudan and Egypt. Note on the Cattle and Sheep Trade with Egypt [n.d. 1923], CIVSEC64/3/13, NRO; Jack, ‘The Sudan,’ 127.
35.
Consul de France à Alexandrie to Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres, 6 January 1915, FM 8AFFECO/27, ANOM.
36.
Note on the Cattle and Sheep Trade with Egypt [n.d. 1923], CIVSEC64/3/13, NRO.
37.
A. N. Gibson, Summary of Expenses from El Obeid to Alexandria (via Port Sudan) on Sudan Cattle [n.d. 1924], SAD602/2/9; A. N. Gibson, Summary of Expenses in the Sudan on Sudan Cattle and Sheep [n.d. 1924], SAD602/2/10.
38.
W. Newbold, The Tribal Economics of the Hadendawa, CIVSEC64/2/5, NRO.
39.
Commissariato Regionale di Cheren to Direzione degli Affari Civili e Politici, 7 September 1925, Pacco 955, ASDAE.
40.
This trade-off is a normal practice throughout Africa. De Waal, Famine that Kills, 7.
41.
W. Newbold, The Tribal Economics of the Hadendawa, CIVSEC64/2/5, NRO.
42.
Bolsi, ‘Note Economiche su la Dancalia Italiana Settentrionale,’ 2–3.
43.
Attività Agricola durante il mese di luglio 1930, FASC1224, IAO.
44.
Attività Agricola durante il mese di gennaio 1930, FASC1224, IAO; Attività Agricola durante il mese di agosto 1930, FASC1224, IAO.
45.
Cavallette, October 1930, FASC1224, IAO; Attività Agricola durante il mese di dicembre 1930, FASC1224, IAO.
46.
Serels, Starvation and the State, 144–145.
47.
Steven Serels, ‘Spinners, Weavers, Merchants and Wearers: The Twentieth Century Decline of the Sudanese Textile Industry,’ in The Road to Two Sudans, Souad T. Ali, Stephanie Beswick, Richard Lobban, and Jay Spaulding, eds. (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 160–176.
48.
Grace Crowfoot, ‘Spinning and Weaving in the Sudan,’ Sudan Notes and Record, 4:1 (1921): 21–38; Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935, 257–260.
49.
F. J. Howard, ‘Annual Report, Suakin Province, 1904,’ in RFACS, 1904, Vol. 4 (1904), 128, SAD.
50.
C. J. Hawker, ‘Annual Report, Red Sea Province, 1906,’ in RFACS, 1906, Vol. 4 (1906), 724, SAD.
51.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
52.
G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO. In addition, the SCCE offered local pastoralists Allen Improved cotton from the Uplands of Mexico, which had a long staple and short vegetation cycle and which was well suited to local climatological conditions. Demand for this type of cotton was growing among local spinners and weavers who recognized its commercial potential. Spinners began to differentiate their threads by the variety of cotton because consumers of locally weaved textiles were willing to pay a premium for fabric made from Allen Improved cotton. Crowfoot, ‘Spinning and Weaving in the Sudan,’ 25.
53.
C. J. Hawker, ‘Annual Report, Red Sea Province, 1908,’ in RFACS, 1908 (1908), 623–624, SAD; Graham Kerr, ‘Annual Report, Red Sea Province, 1910,’ in RFACS, 1910 (1910), 365, SAD.
54.
G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO.
55.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
56.
Marchi , Studi sulla Pastorizia della Colonia Eritrea, 22; Hardinge to Salisbury, 16 July 1891, FO407/107/10, NA; Arbuthnot to Governor Kassala,18 October 1942, SAD849/7/19-28.
57.
E. B. Wilkinson, ‘Annual Report, Kassala Province, 1905,’ in RFACS, 1905, Vol. 4 (1905), 87, SAD.
58.
Hewing to Director of Agriculture, 28 May 1923, CIVSEC2/8/30, NRO.
59.
E. Bonus, ‘Annual Report, Agriculture and Lands Department, 1908,’ in RFACS, 1908 (1908), 17, SAD.
60.
Hewing to Director of Agriculture, 28 May 1923, CIVSEC2/8/30, NRO.
61.
Ibid.
62.
Gash Delta Project. Note on Payment of Compensation to Sheikhs of Shaiotes, 8 March 1924, CIVSEC2/8/32, NRO.
63.
Ibid.
64.
G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO.
65.
Il Commissariato Regionale del Serae to Governo, 19 August 1915, Pacco 804, ASDAE.
66.
G. de Ponti, Il Cotone in Eritrea, 27 August 1930, FASC1962, IAO.
67.
See Baldrati, Le Condizioni agricole della valle del Barca.
68.
Hjort af Ornäs and Dahl, Responsible Man, 117–118.
69.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
70.
F. Cappelleti, Rapporto Sulle zone agricole di Zula, Uangabò, Bardoli e Badda (Bassopiano Orientale) nel period 3–8 Febraio 1947, FASC2201, IAO; Marcello Gubellini, Economia Agraria Indigena della zona costiera dell’Eritrea (Florence: Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano, 1933), 3–5.
71.
For critical history of this scheme, see Tony Barnett, The Gezira Scheme: An Illusion of Development (London: Frank Cass, 1977), and Serels, Starvation and the State, 143–161.
72.
At that time, Anglo -Egyptian officials were still concerned about Sudan’s food security. Officials believed that the only way to ensure an adequate supply of grain in Sudanese markets was to extend the railroad network into the fertile, sorghum-producing rainlands along the Ethiopian and Eritrean frontiers. Though the Anglo-Egyptian government was unable to secure the financing for this railroad extension on its own, the SPS’s management offered to assist in financing this railroad in exchange for the concession. Northern Governor’s Meeting 1921, 5th Sitting. 29th January 1921, CIVSEC32/1/2, NRO.
73.
C. P. Browne, Note on 50% Assessment of Dura in the Gash Delta, 1 September 1924, CIVSEC2/9/35, NRO.
74.
Newbold to Baily, 13 March 1927, CIVSEC2/10/42, NRO. For a study of the settlement of West African Muslim pilgrims in Sudan, see C. Bawa Yamba, Permanent Pilgrims: The Role of Pilgrimage in the Lives of West African Muslims in Sudan (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995).
75.
Newbold to Baily, 13 March 1927, CIVSEC2/10/42, NRO.
76.
Dingwall to Governor Kassala Province, 29 March 1949, CIVSEC19/1/2, NRO.
77.
Macintyre to Baily, 28 March 1927, CIVSEC2/10/42, NRO.
78.
Kassala Cotton Company, Circular to Shareholders and Debenture Holders, 15 November 1927, CIVSEC2/13/35, NRO.
79.
R. E. H. Baily, Gash Delta Cotton Organization, 20 August 1932, SAD989/6/36-60.
80.
Governor Kassala Province to Chairman of the Gash Board, 31 October 1933, CIVSEC2/10/44, NRO.
81.
This strategy was developed by the famed agronomist, Gino Bartolommei Gioli. In 1901, Ferdinando Martini, the governor of Eritrea, invited Gioli to tour Eritrea and propose a plan for the future economic development of the colony. Gino Bartolommei Gioli, Le Attitudini della Colonia Eritrea all’Agricultura (Florence: Tipographia di M. Ricci, 1902), 34.
82.
Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano, L’Economia Eritrea, 9.
83.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
84.
F. Cappelleti, Rapporto Sulle zone agricole di Zula, Uangabò, Bardoli e Badda (Bassopiano Orientale) nel period 3–8 Febraio 1947, FASC2201, IAO.
85.
Ufficio Agrario della Colonia Eritrea, Relazione Annuale sull’Agricoltura e pastorizia in Eritrea nel 1939, FASC638, IAO.
86.
Marcello Gubellini, Un Triennio di osservazioni economiche nell’azienda agraria della società imprese africane a Tessenei, June 1936, FASC1245, IAO.
87.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
88.
Ufficio Agrario della Colonia Eritrea, Relazione Annuale sull’Agricoltura e pastorizia in Eritrea nel 1939, FASC638, IAO.
89.
Guido Mangano, La Cotonicoltura e le iniziative cotoniere nell’Eritrea, 1945, FASC2345, IAO.
90.
Ibid.
91.
Lewis, ‘Diem el Arab and the Beja Stevedores of Port Sudan,’ 19–25.
92.
Initially, the subventions were only gifts of money. However, this practice was further developed by subsequent Muslim rulers, who expanded the subventions to include relatively small gifts of grain. In the nineteenth century, the amount of these subventions increased dramatically. Following the Egyptian campaign against the first Saudi-Wahhabi state, Muhammad Ali assumed responsibility for the annual subventions paid by Muslim rulers to the Hijaz. Though previous Ottoman officials had given annual gifts of 1 million kg of grain, Muhammad ‘Ali increased the amount of grain to nearly 30 million kg per year. Duman Nurtaç, ‘Emirs of Mecca and the Ottoman Government of Hijaz, 1840–1908’ (Master’s Thesis: Boğaziçi University, 2005), 18; Klunzinger, Upper Egypt, 272.
93.
Joseph Kostiner, The Making of Saudi Arabia 1916–1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 57–62.
94.
Ibid.
95.
For a description of al-Sa‘ud’s rise to dominance in the Hijaz, see Askar al-Enazy, The Creation of Saudi Arabia: Ibn Saud and British Imperial Policy, 1914–1927 (London and New York: Routledge, 2010), 129–157.
96.
Roger Owen and Sevket Pamuk, A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century (London: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 1998), 81.
97.
Ryan to Simon, 23 April 1934, IOR/R/PS/12/4088, BL.
98.
Rapport sur la situation politique, économique et financière de la Côte Française des Somalis. Année 1934, FM 1AFFPOL/2666, ANOM.
99.
Ibid.
100.
Oberlé and Hugot, Histoire de Djibouti, 103–105.
101.
Relations Avec l’Aoussa [n.d. 1935], FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
102.
Ibid.
103.
Expédition en Aoussa, Avril-May 1944, FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
104.
Le Commandant de Cercle de Dikhil, Chronologie de nos rapports avec les Assahyamara et le Sultan de l’Aoussa, 28 August 1943, FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
105.
Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Djibouti and the Horn of Africa (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 11.
106.
Expédition en Aoussa, Avril-May 1944, FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
107.
Governor to les Commandants de Cercle, 2 November 1934, FM 1AFFPOL/2666, ANOM.
108.
Rapport de Mission Effectué en Côte Française des Somalis par M. Le Conservateur des Eaux et Forêts Pierre Saboreau, 1947, FT CFS 1E7, ANOM.
109.
Le Commandant de Cercle de Dikhil, Chronologie de nos rapports avec les Assahyamara et le Sultan de l’Aoussa, 28 August 1943, FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
110.
Alessandro Volterra, Sudditi Coloniali: Ascari Eritrei 1935–1941 (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2005), 85–86.
111.
Volterra, Sudditi Coloniali, 111.
112.
Santagata, La Colonia Eritrea nel Mar Rosso davanti all’Abyssinia, 25.
113.
Volterra, Sudditi Coloniali, 174–175.
114.
Martin Daly, Imperial Sudan: The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium 1934–56 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 131.
115.
Paul, A History of the Beja Tribes of the Sudan, 127–130.
116.
Following the signing of the Franco-Italian Armistice on 24 June 1940, British officials laid a maritime blockade around the Côte Française des Somalis. Initially, the blockade exempted food, which continued to be freely imported. However, this changed on 16 November 1940 when the British Navy issued new orders requiring its patrols to scuttle the cargos of all ships that it encountered in the territorial waters of the Côte Française des Somalis. Until 1941, this blockade was important but not total because provisions could still be freely imported overland from Italian-held Ethiopia. Marine en Côte Française des Somalis, Compte Rendu de Renseignements No. 23, 18 Novemebr 1940, FM 1AFFPOL/3699, ANOM; Nouauhead to Secrétariat d’Etat aux Colonies, 25 August 1941, FM1AFFPOL/894, ANOM.
117.
Cercle de Tadjoura, Rapport Mensuel, July 1942, FT CFS, 1E6, ANOM.
118.
Le Commandant de Cercle de Dikhil, Chronologie de nos rapports avec les Assahyamara et le Sultan de l’Aoussa, 28 August 1943, FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
119.
Note au sujet de l’occupation d’Afambo [n.d. May 1944], FT CFS 2E7, ANOM.
120.
Rapport de Mission Effectué en Côte Française des Somalis par M. Le Conservateur des Eaux et Forêts Pierre Saboreau, 1947, FT CFS 1E7, ANOM.
121.
La Résistance à Djibouti [n.d. June 1943], FM 1AFFPOL/3699, ANOM.
122.
Ufficio Agrario della Colonia Eritrea, Relazione Annuale sull’agricoltura e pastorizia in Eritrea nel 1939, FASC638, IAO.
123.
Cercle de Tadjoura, Subdivision d’Obock, Rapport Mensuel, April 1941, FT CFS 3G3, ANOM.
124.
Notizie generali sulla cerealcotura Eritrea dall’anno 1933 all’anno 1938, FASC851, IAO.
125.
Servizio Zootecnica e Pastorizia, Estrato Dalla ‘relazione annuale’ dell’ufficio agrario, 1939, FASC510, IAO.
126.
Notizie generali sulla cerealcotura Eritrea dall’anno 1933 all’anno 1938, FASC851, IAO.
127.
Prunier, Rapport de Tournée, 20 January 1939, FT CFS 1E7, ANOM.
128.
Servizio Zootecnica e Pastorizia, Estrato Dalla ‘relazione annuale’ dell’ufficio agrario, 1939, FASC510, IAO.
129.
Le Commandant de Cercle de Tadjoura to La Gouverner, 9 Septembre 1943, FT CFS 1E6, ANOM.
130.
Hjort af Ornäs and Dahl, Responsible Man, 8.
131.
Prunier, Rapport de Tournée, 20 January 1939, FT CFS 1E7, ANOM.
132.
Jack, ‘The Sudan,’ 138.
133.
Direzione Generale degli Affari Politici, Ministero dell’Africa Italiana, L’Italia e le sue colonie prefasciste, 1947, FASC1113, IAO.
134.
Ibid.
135.
Ufficio Agrario della Colonia Eritrea, Relazione Annuale sull’Agricoltura e pastorizia in Eritrea nel 1939, FASC638, IAO.
136.
Ibid.
137.
Compagnia Nazionale per il cotone di Etiopia, Distretto cotoniero Dell’Ausc. Relazione finale campagna cotoniera anno 1939–40, April 1940, FASC1761, IAO.
138.
Armando Maugini, Società Imprese Africane: Rassunto delle notizie trasmesse dai Sigg. Colonello Ippolitit e Umberto Pinzano, dall’11 giugno 1945 al 22 Aprile 1946 [n.d. May 1946], FASC1794, IAO.
139.
Documentazione Statistica Sulle Attività Agricole e Zootecniche durante l’amministrazione militare britanica (al giugno 1947), FASC788, IAO.
140.
Giuseppe Jannone, Rapporto confidenziale sull’attività della popolazione italiana dell’Eritrea dal 1942 all’agosto 1946 e sulle condizioni economiche di essa durante lo stesso periodo, 1946, FASC592, IAO.

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Zentrum für Interdisziplinäre Regionalstudien, Martin Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
Steven Serels

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Serels, S. (2018). The Cost of Living Becomes Unaffordable, 1913–1945. In: The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94165-3_6

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94165-3_6
Published: 24 August 2018
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