Abstract
In this chapter, Musgrove and Michell examine the experiences of people who grew up in foster care from the 1940s to the early twenty-first century, with a particular focus on the original oral history interviews with former foster children conducted for this book. The chapter takes an unflinching look at the combinations of poverty, illness, trauma and abuse which led to children being placed in foster care, and exposes the lifelong legacies of abuse, mistreatment, neglect, placement instability, poor access to education and relationship fragmentation in foster care. Importantly, the chapter positions these often-harrowing narratives as stories of survivors who have made lives for themselves sometimes with, and sometimes without, the help of their biological and foster families.
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Notes
- 1.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Priscilla,” 2014. All interview content has been edited to remove any information which might identify the individual, including geographical locations within Australia. For further information on the ethical protocols of these interviews, see the introduction to this book.
- 2.
Rosamond Hill and Florence Hill, What We Saw in Australia (Digitsed by the Internet Archive in 2007 with Funding from Microsoft Corporation: http://www.archive.org/details/whatwesawinaustr00hilliala, 1875), 138.
- 3.
“Priscilla”.
- 4.
The submissions to the inquiry are publicly available via the Parliament of Australia website at https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Completed_inquiries/2004-07/inst_care/submissions/sublist, last accessed 29 January 2018.
- 5.
Peter Read, “You Have to Let Out the Scream: Curated Exhibitions of Violence Inside and Outside the Site of Infamy,” History Australia 10, no. 3 (2013): 226.
- 6.
- 7.
“Priscilla”.
- 8.
Ibid. It was also not unusual for children to be disregarded by the welfare authorities, often the information on file for some people was from the perspective of the foster carers, not from the perspective of the foster child, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians: A Report on Australians Who Experienced Institutional or Out-of-Home Care as Children” (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2004), 297.
- 9.
“Priscilla”.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
See also Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 12.
Access visits were not seen as a right, they were regarded as a privilege to be earned, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 134; Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home: National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families” (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997), 84, 130.
- 13.
Shurlee Swain and Renate Howe, Single Mothers and Their Children: Disposal, Punishment and Survival in Australia (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
- 14.
“Priscilla”. There are other stories of children ending up as wards of the state because their parents needed help, for example, Paul (b. 1964) was fostered when his mother needed temporary help while she recovered from an illness, but the child was made a Ward of the Victorian State, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 60–61.
- 15.
“Priscilla”. Access visits were often not organised or not encouraged, they were not seen as a right, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 134. Also see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 84, 130.
- 16.
What Priscilla refers to as cottage homes were also known as family group homes . They were an attempt by government agencies from the late 1950s to place children in the care of the state in a situation where they could receive more individual attention. They are akin to today’s group or residential care homes in that a small number of children were placed together in a ‘family’ like setting, and they allowed for siblings to be placed together. Instead of staff on shift work being rotated in the home, however, a couple were employed as cottage home parents. See Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 22. Also see Amanda Gargula ’s description of living in a cottage home , “Cloudy Wishes,” in Recipes for Survival, ed. Deidre Michell and Priscilla Taylor (Elizabeth, SA : People’s Voice Publishing, 2011), 58–60.
- 17.
“Priscilla”.
- 18.
Ibid. Parenting can be challenging for those like Priscilla who did not have good role models. One Aboriginal woman confessed to being “a rotten mother” because she “didn’t have a role model for a start” while another put her own children in Homes. Being physically abused as a child also led to some taking care to not physically beat their children, to not “knock anything [the spirit] out of them that’s in them already like I had it all knocked out of me.” See Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home: A Guide to the Findings and Recommendations of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families” (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997), 195, 196.
- 19.
To borrow the words of the Hill sisters quoted at the opening of this chapter.
- 20.
This chapter features material from fourteen interviews with former foster children, twelve women and two men. The oldest contributor was a woman in her 70s, the youngest a twenty-year-old, meaning that the interviews span most of the second half of the twentieth century. All interviewees had Anglo, Celtic or European cultural heritage. One was born in England during the 1960s and brought to Australia as a toddler by her parents under the ‘Ten Pound Pom’ scheme, as it was called (an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to recruit migrants from Britain), and all others were born in Australia. Three of the participants came from economic privilege, most were from financially poor and working-class backgrounds. There were other interviews we conducted with people who consider their out of home care experience to be foster care, but who were actually in placements such as family group homes . Although they shared some of the same experiences as foster children, the nature of the regulation of those placements meant that we came to understand them as something different again—not quite like a foster home, yet certainly not like a large institution. We also conducted interviews with people who provided foster care. These interviews have helped shape our analysis both here and in other chapters, but we have not featured their stories here.
- 21.
This includes the ninety-five submissions to the Forgotten Australians Senate Inquiry which mention foster care; the National Library of Australia’s Forgotten Australians and Former Child Migrants oral history project 206 interviews, 113 publicly available online, 51 identified as relating to foster care), available at https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4707359, last accessed 29 January 2018; and National Library of Australia’s Bringing Them Home oral history project (338 interviews, 187 publicly available online, 36 identified as relating to foster care), available at https://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn833081, last accessed 29 January 2018.
- 22.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 101–4.
- 23.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Doug,” 2014.
- 24.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Kylie,” 2015.
- 25.
Phyllis Chesler, Woman and Madness (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1972), 25. See, for example, Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery (New York: Basic Books, 1997). According to Herman, “protracted depression is the most common finding in virtually all clinical studies of chronically traumatized people” (94). On the stigmatization of single mothers , see Swain and Howe, Single Mothers and Their Children, 2–3, 5–6, 16–17.
- 26.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 104.
- 27.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Pam,” 2014.
- 28.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Susan,” 2015.
- 29.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Grace,” 2016. Holiday placements such as Grace enjoyed were often marred by bad matching of child to carers, Senate Community Affairs Committee, “Forgotten Australians.” It was also often the beginning of “a permanent separation of Aboriginal children from their family and community”, see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home: A Guide,” 91.
- 30.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Adelle,” 2014.
- 31.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Pamela,” 2014. Informal arrangements such as that made by Pamela’s grandfather have meant that people have not known how or why they were placed with foster carers, nor anything about their background which can cause considerable distress, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge” (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2005), 91. However, the same was often true for children formally removed, see, for example, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 11, 38.
- 32.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Jane,” 2015. Threatening children with a reformatory was not uncommon, it happened to Germaine Greer too, perhaps because her father was raised in informal foster care with a woman, Emma Greeney, who made her living taking in Tasmanian State wards, see Germaine Greer, Dadd, We Hardly Knew You (London: Penguin, 1999). Threatening children with removal from their foster care home, “in disgrace for being naughty”, was standard practice from the earliest days of foster according to Catherine Helen Spence , a key proponent for formalising foster care in the nineteenth century, see Catherine Helen Spence , State Children in Australia: A History of Boarding out and Its Developments (Adelaide: Vardon, 1907), 40.
- 33.
Adolescence is often a difficult time for families, a “transition point” and time of increased conflict between parents and children, no matter how the family has been formed, see, for example, Elly Robinson, “Young People and Their Parents: Supporting Families through Changes That Occur in Adolescence” (Online: Australian Institute of Family Studies, Australian Government, 2006); Christine Harkin and Stan Houston, “Reviewing the Literature on the Breakdown of Foster Care Placements for Young People: Complexity and the Social Work Task,” Child Care in Practice 22, no. 2 (2016); and A. Butlinski et al., “The Adoption of Children from Out-of-Home Care,” Child Abuse and Neglect 72 (2017).
- 34.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Stacey,” 2014.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Mary,” 2016.
- 37.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Jannelle,” 2015.
- 38.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Nicole,” 2014.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Ibid.
- 41.
Chapter 2: Did Anybody Care? The Death of John Wood Pledger .
- 42.
Patterns of abuse of children in foster care is similar to those found in forms of residential care , for example orphanages and children’s homes, which have recently attracted attention as environments where, historically, risk of abuse has been very high. See: Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 95.
- 43.
“Jane”.
- 44.
“Nicole”.
- 45.
“Kylie”.
- 46.
“Grace”.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
“Adelle”.
- 49.
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 141; Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 141; and Nell Musgrove, “Locating Foster Care: Place and Space in Care Leavers’ Childhood Memories,” Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 8, no. 1 (2015): 106–22.
- 50.
See Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 97.
- 51.
“Pam”.
- 52.
“Pamela”.
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Multiple placements were not a feature of all stories told by interviewees but they feature in the Senate Inquiry where placements up to 80 were not unusual, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 99.
- 55.
“Jannelle”.
- 56.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 142. Also see Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Sexual Abuse, “Final Report,” 2017, available at https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/final-report, last accessed 21 March 2017; Andrew Guy Peake, “State Children: With Particular Reference to Foster Care” (South Australian Institute of Technology, 1977).
- 57.
“Pam”.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Care Leavers Australasia Network (CLAN), Submission to the United Nations Committee Against Torture, 2012, available at http://www.clan.org.au/perch/resources/doc310316-31032016101615.pdf, last accessed 5 February 2018.
- 60.
“Pam”.
- 61.
Ibid.
- 62.
Jennifer, whose testimony is in The Bringing Home Report, says of her foster mother that she was “quite mad” as not only did she make the child “cook, clean, attend to her customers’ laundry,” she would also belt her when Jennifer was naked and without reason, see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home: A Guide”.
- 63.
“Mary”.
- 64.
Long History of Foster Care Oral History Project, “Tom,” 2015.
- 65.
“Doug”.
- 66.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 120; Chapter 9: Are We Getting Better at This?
- 67.
See, for example, Philip Mendes, Dee Michell, and Jacqueline Z. Wilson, “Young People Transitioning from Out-of-Home Care and Access to Higher Education: A Critical Review of the Literature,” Children Australia 39, no. 4 (2014); Andrew Harvey, Lisa Andrewartha, and Patricia McNamara, “A Forgotten Cohort? Including People from Out of Home Care in Australian Higher Education Policy,” Australian Journal of Education 59, no. 2 (2015); Andrew Harvey et al., Out of Care, into University: Raising Higher Education Access and Achievement of Care Leavers (LaTrobe, VIC: LaTrobe University, 2015); and Elizabeth Fernandez et al., “No Child Should Grow up Like This: Identifying Long Term Outcomes of Forgotten Australians, Child Migrants and the Stolen Generations” (Kensington: University of New South Wales, 2016).
- 68.
“Kylie”.
- 69.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Forgotten Australians,” 148. Also see Dee Michell, “A Suddenly Desirable Demographic? Care Leavers in Higher Education,” Developing Practice 33 (Spring 2012): 44–58.
- 70.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 158.
- 71.
“Doug”.
- 72.
The Federal Government funds post-care services in each state for those who were in out of home care as minors. Services usually include counselling, advocacy and hosting social events.
- 73.
“Jannelle”. People being returned to abusive parents is a known problem in the Australian foster care system, see Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 119.
- 74.
“Jannelle”. In Australia eligible students can opt to participate in a loan scheme whereby the Federal Government lends students the money to pay their contribution toward university fees on the condition it will be paid back through the tax system when students are employed full time.
- 75.
Michael Long, Peter Carpenter, and Martin Hayden, Participation in Education and Training 1980–1994 (Camberwell, VIC : The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd, 1999).
- 76.
“Jane”.
- 77.
“Pamela”.
- 78.
“Grace”.
- 79.
Ibid.
- 80.
Joanna Penglase , Orphans of the Living: Growing up in Care in Twentieth-Century Australia (Fremantle, WA: Curtin University Books/Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 2005).
- 81.
Senate Community Affairs References Committee, “Protecting Vulnerable Children: A National Challenge,” 62.
- 82.
“Stacey”.
- 83.
“Nicole”.
- 84.
Andrew Harvey, “Translating Academic Research to Higher Education Policy Reform: The Case of Enabling Programs,” International Studies in Widening Participation 4, no. 1 (2017): 8.
- 85.
For a discussion on Australia’s widening participation program in universities, see Michele Jarldorn et al., “Planting a Seed: Encouraging Service Users Towards Educational Goals,” Social Work Education. The International Journal 34, no. 8 (2015): 923–25.
- 86.
“Pam”.
- 87.
“Kylie”.
- 88.
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 166, 419; Fernandez et al., “No Child Should Grow up Like This: Identifying Long Term Outcomes of Forgotten Australians, Child Migrants and the Stolen Generations,” 13–14.
- 89.
“Jannelle”.
- 90.
Stolen Generations describes the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children separated from their families, particularly during the period from 1910 to 1970 when the national commitment to assimilation of Australian Indigenous peoples meant that many children were removed from, and/or denied return to, their families on the basis of race or culture (these two terms were poorly distinguished and often conflated, but the Bringing them home report made clear that the damage was to culture, community and kinship), see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 11–13, 131–214.
- 91.
“Adelle”.
- 92.
“Jane”.
- 93.
“Grace”.
- 94.
“Doug”.
- 95.
We note the distinct over-representation of women amongst our participants, and so are cautious about drawing strong conclusions based on our findings. Further, while care leavers discussing parenting in the other collections of testimonies and oral histories we examined were also majority women, we are still reluctant to conclude that parenting was fundamentally more important in the post-care lives of women. For much of the twentieth century women were more likely to be the ones responsible for raising children—both in daily terms within households and in cases where couples separated—and so women may have been more likely to have opportunities to actively parent, and for this to form a large part of their young-adult lives. Gender norms also clearly structure life narratives.
- 96.
“Grace”.
- 97.
“Kylie”.
- 98.
“Stacey”.
- 99.
Fernandez et al., “No Child Should Grow up Like This: Identifying Long Term Outcomes of Forgotten Australians, Child Migrants and the Stolen Generations,” 13. See also Chapter 3: Making and Breaking Families.
- 100.
See Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, “Bringing Them Home Report,” 161, 166, 528.
- 101.
CLAN, “Struggling to Keep It Together: A National Survey About Older Care Leavers Who Were in Australia’s Orphanages, Children’s Homes, Foster Care and Other Institutions,” 2011, available at https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/fcdc/inquiries/57th/Child_Abuse_Inquiry/Submissions/CLAN_Appendix_1.pdf, last accessed 7 February 2018.
- 102.
“Jannelle”.
- 103.
“Pam”.
- 104.
“Mary”.
- 105.
“Susan”.
- 106.
“Pamela”.
- 107.
Chapter 6: Foster Care—Philosophies, Rhetoric and Practices.
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Musgrove, N., Michell, D. (2018). Remembering and Forgetting Foster Care. In: The Slow Evolution of Foster Care in Australia. Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93900-1_4
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