Abstract
Living amphibians include caecilians, salamanders, and frogs. They share many features like a biphasic lifestyle with aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults, cranial skeletal elements that are derived from neural crest cells and mesoderm, and muscles derived from branchiomeric mesoderm and somites. Meckel’s cartilage, which forms the larval lower jaw, derives, for example, from mandibular arch neural crest cells. Mandibular arch mesoderm gives rise to the intermandibularis muscle, which forms the floor of the mouth, and the adductor mandibulae muscles, which are laterally located muscles that close the jaw. For the following arches (hyoid and branchial arches), similarities in muscles and cartilages can also be found. However, taking a closer look, it turns out that amphibians differ also in many things. Direct development evolved in all three taxa as did neoteny, i.e., the specimens reach sexual maturity while still having larval characters. The crania range from robust in caecilians to very light in anurans. Neural crest cells contribute in different amounts to the same cranial structures as the skull roof, and in all muscle groups, some muscles changed their attachments, others are only present in one or two taxa, and again others developed several heads. The knowledge of the diversity and in particular the similarities of amphibian crania and cranial muscles can help us to shed light onto the anatomy of the last common ancestor of tetrapods and onto variations in head anatomy and development in amniotes, which include reptiles and mammals.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Alberch P, Gale EA (1986) Pathways of cytodifferentiation during the metamorphosis of the epibranchial cartilage in the salamander Eurycea bislineata. Dev Biol 117:233–244
Alberch P, Lewbart G, Gale EA (1985) The fate of larval chondrocytes during the metamorphosis of the epibranchial in the salamander, Eurycea bislineata. Development 88:71–83
Alcalde L, Barg M (2006) Chondrocranium and cranial muscle morphology in Lysapsus and Pseudis tadpoles (Anura: Hylidae: Hylinae). Acta Zool 87:91–100
Alley KE (1989) Myofiber turnover is used to retrofit frog jaw muscles during metamorphosis. Am J Anat 184:1–12
Alley KE, Omerza FF (1998) Neuromuscular remodeling and myofiber turnover in Rana pipiens’ jaw muscles. Cell Tissues Organs 164:46–58
Altig R, Johnston GF (1989) Guilds of anuran larvae: relationships among developmental modes, morphologies, and habitats. Herpetol Monogr 3:81–109
AmphibiaWeb (2018) University of California, Berkeley. https://amphibiaweb.org. Accessed 14 Feb 2018
Bauer WJ (1992) A contribution to the morphology of the m. interhyoideus posterior (VII) of urodele Amphibia. Zool Jb Anat 122:129–139
Bauer WJ (1997) A contribution to the morphology of visceral jaw-opening muscles of urodeles (Amphibia: Caudata). J Morphol 233:77–97
Bemis WE, Schwenk K, Wake M (1983) Morphology and function of the feeding apparatus in Dermophis mexicanus (Amphibia: Gymnophiona). Zool J Linnean Soc 77:75–96
Bininda-Emonds ORP, Jeffery JE, Richardson MK (2003) Is sequence heterochrony an important evolutionary mechanism in mammals? J Mamm Evol 10:335–361
Birchmeier C, Brohmann H (2000) Genes that control the development of migrating muscle precursor cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 12:725–730
Bothe I, Dietrich S (2006) The molecular setup of the avian head mesoderm and its implication for craniofacial myogenesis. Dev Dyn 235:2845–2860
Callery EM, Elinson RP (2000) Thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis in a direct developing frog. PNAS 97:2615–2620
Callery EM, Fang H, Elinson RP (2001) Frogs without polliwogs: evolution of anuran direct development. BioEssays 23:233–241
Cannatella DC (1999) 4. Architecture: cranial and axial musculoskeleton. In: McDiarmid RW, Altig R (eds) Tadpoles—the biology of anuran larvae, vol 1. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 52–81
Carroll RL (2007) The Palaeozoic ancestry of salamanders, frogs and caecilians. Zool J Linnean Soc 150:1–140
Carroll RL, Holmes R (1980) The skull and jaw musculature as guides to the ancestry of salamanders. Zool J Linnean Soc 68:1–40
Castellanos R, Xie Q, Zheng D, Cvekl A, Morrow BE (2014) Mammalian TBX1 preferentially binds and regulates downstream targets via a tandem T-site repeat. PLoS One 9:e95151
Chanoine C, Hardy S (2003) Xenopus muscle development: from primary to secondary myogenesis. Dev Dyn 226:12–23
Cihak R, Kralovec K, Rocek Z (2002) Developmental origin of the frontoparietal bone in Bombina variegata (Anura: Discoglossidae). J Morphol 255:122–129
Couly GF, Coltey PM, Douarin NML (1993) The triple origin of skull in higher vertebrates: a study in quail-chick chimeras. Development 117:409–429
Couly G, Creuzet S, Bennaceur S, Vincent C, Douarin NML (2002) Interactions between Hox-negative cephalic neural crest cells and the foregut endoderm in patterning the facial skeleton in the vertebrate head. Development 129:1061–1073
Creuzet S, Couly G, Douarin NML (2005) Patterning the neural crest derivatives during development of the vertebrate head: insights from avian studies. J Anat 207:447–459
Dean MN (2003) Suction feeding in the Pipid frog, Hymenochirus boettgeri: kinematic and behavioral considerations. Copeia 4:879–886
Deban SM, Olson WM (2002) Suction feeding by a tiny predatory tadpole. Nature 420:41–42
Deban SM, O’Reilly JC, Nishikawa KC (2001) The evolution of the motor control of feeding in amphibians. Am Zool 41:1280–1298
Diogo R, Abdala V (2010) Muscles of vertebrates—comparative anatomy, evolution, homologies and development. CRC Press, Enfield
Diogo R, Wood B (2012) Violation of Dollo’s law: evidence of muscle reversions in primate phylogeny and their implications for the understanding of the ontogeny, evolution, and anatomical variations of modern humans. Evolution 66:3267–3276
Diogo R, Hinits Y, Hughes SM (2008) Development of mandibular, hyoid and hypobranchial muscles in the zebrafish: homologies and evolution of these muscles within bony fishes and tetrapods. BMC Dev Biol 8:1–22
Diogo R, Kelly RG, Christiaen L, Levine M, Ziermann JM, Molnar JL, Noden DM, Tzahor E (2015) A new heart for a new head in vertebrate cardiopharyngeal evolution. Nature 520:466–473
Drüner L (1901) Zungenbein-, Kiemenbogen- und Kehlkopf-Skelet, -Muskeln und Nerven von Siredon (Larvenform). Studien zur Anatomie der Zungenbein-, Kiemenbogen-und Kehlkopfmusculatur der Urodelen. 2. T. Z. J Anat 468–593
Duellman WE, Trueb L (1994) Biology of Amphibians. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Dulcey Cala CJ, Tarazona OA, Ramìrez-Pinilla MP (2009) The morphology and post-hatching development of the skull of Bolitoglossa nicefori (Caudata: Plethodontidae): developmental implications of recapitulation and repatterning. Zoology 112:227–239
Edgeworth FH (1935) The cranial muscles of vertebrates. Cambridge at the University Press, London
Elinson RP (2013) Metamorphosis in a frog that does not have a tadpole. In: Shi Y-B (ed) Current topics in developmental biology, vol 103. Academic Press, Burlington, pp 259–276
Ericsson R, Olsson L (2004) Patterns of spatial and temporal visceral arch muscle development in the Mexican Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). J Morphol 261:131–140
Ericsson R, Cerny R, Falck P, Olsson L (2004) The role of cranial neural crest cells in visceral arch muscle positioning and morphogenesis in the Mexican axolotl, Ambystoma mexicanum. Dev Dyn 231:237–247
Ericsson R, Joss J, Olsson L (2008) The fate of cranial neural crest cells in the Australian lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri). J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 310:345–354
Ericsson R, Ziermann JM, Piekarski N, Schubert G, Joss J, Olsson L (2009) Cell fate and timing in the evolution of neural crest and mesoderm development in the head region of amphibians and lungfishes. Acta Zool 90:264–272
Ericsson R, Knight R, Johanson Z (2013) Evolution and development of the vertebrate neck. J Anat 222:67–78
Fabrezi M, Lobo F (2009) Hyoid skeleton, its related muscles, and morphological novelties in the frog Lepidobatrachus (Anura, Ceratophryidae). Anat Rec 292:1700–1712
Falck P, Joss J, Olsson L (2000) Cranial neural crest cell migration in the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri. Evol Dev 2:179–185
Fan X, Loebel DA, Bildsoe H, Wilkie EE, Qin J, Wang J, Tam PP (2016) Tissue interactions, cell signaling and transcriptional control in the cranial mesoderm during craniofacial development. AIMS Genet 3(1):74–98
Ford LS, Cannatella DC (1993) The major clades of frogs. Herpetol Monogr 7:94–117
Fox H (1959) A study of the development of the head and pharynx of the larval Urodele Hynobius and its bearing on the evolution of the vertebrate head. Philos Trans R Soc Lond 242:151–204
Francis ETB (1934) IV The muscles. In: The anatomy of the salamander. Oxford University Press, London, pp 48–75
Frost DR, Grant T, Faivovich J, Bain RH, Haas A, Haddad CFB, de Sá RO, Channing A, Wilkinson M, Donnellan SC, Raxworthy CJ, Campbell JA, Blotto BL, Moler P, Drewes RC, Nussbaum RA, Lynch JD, Green DM, Wheeler WC (2006) The amphibian tree of life. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 297:370–371
Gegenbaur C (1878) Elements of comparative anatomy. Macmillan, London
Goldberg J, Candioti FV, Akmentins MS (2012) Direct-developing frogs: ontogeny of Oreobates barituensis (Anura: Terrarana) and the development of a novel trait. Amphibia-Reptilia 33:239–250
Goodrich ES (1930) Studies on the structure and development of vertebrates. Dover, London
Gould SJ (1977) Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Graham A, Smith A (2001) Patterning the pharyngeal arches. BioEssays 23:54–61
Gross JB, Hanken J (2005) Cranial neural crest contributes to the bony skull vault in adult Xenopus laevis: insights from cell labeling studies. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 304:1–8
Gross JB, Hanken J (2008). Segmentation of the vertebrate skull: neural-crest derivation of adult cartilages in the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. Annual meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology, p 1–16
Haas A (1996) Das larvale Cranium von Gastrotheca riobambae und seine Metamorphose (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae), vol 36. Verhandlungen des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins, Hamburg, pp 33–162
Haas A (2001) Mandibular arch musculature of anuran tadpoles; with comments on homologies of amphibian jaw muscles. J Morphol 247:1–33
Haas A (2003) Phylogeny of frogs as inferred from primarily larval characters (Amphibia: Anura). Cladistics 19:23–89
Haas A, Richards SJ (1998) Correlations of cranial morphology, ecology, and evolution in Australian suctorial tadpoles of the Genera Litoria and Nyctimystes (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae: Pelodryadinae). J Morph 238:109–141
Hall BK (1980) Tissue interactions and the initiation of osteogenesis and chondrogenesis in the neural crest-derived mandibular skeleton of the embryonic mouse as seen in isolated murine tissues and in recombinations of murine and avian tissues. Development 58:251–264
Hanken J, Gross JB (2005) Evolution of cranial development and the role of neural crest: insights from amphibians. J Anat 207:437–446
Hanken J, Klymkowsky MW, Summers CH, Seufert DW, Ingebrigsten N (1992) Cranial ontogeny in the direct-developing frog, Eleutherodactylus coqui (Anura: Leptodactylidae), analysed using whole-mount immunohistochemistry. J Morphol 211:95–118
Hanken J, Klymkowsky MW, Alley KE, Jennings DH (1997) Jaw muscle development as evidence for embryonic repatterning in direct-developing frogs. Proc R Soc Lond B 264:1349–1354
Hanken J, Carl TF, Richardson MK, Olsson L, Schlosser G, Osabutey CK, Klymkowsky MW (2001) Limb development in a “nonmodel” vertebrate, the direct-developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 291:375–388
Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimaraes-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E (2009) Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells. Dev Cell 16:822–832
Helms JA, Codero D, Tapadia MD (2005) New insights into craniofacial morphogenesis. Development 132:851–861
Hillis DM (1991) The phylogeny of amphibians: current knowledge and the role of cytogenetics. In: Amphibian cytogenetics and evolution. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 7–31
Hirasawa T, Kuratani S (2015) Evolution of the vertebrate skeleton: morphology, embryology, and development. Zool Lett 1:2
Huang R, Zhi Q, Izpisua-Belmonte J-C, Christ B, Patel K (1999) Origin and development of the avian tongue muscles. Anat Embryol 200:137–152
Huxley TH (1858) On the theory of the vertebrate skull. The Croonian lecture. Proc. Roy. Soc., London
Iordansky NN (1992) Jaw muscles of the Urodela and Anura: some features of development, functions, and homology. Zool Jb Anat 122:225–232
Iordansky NN (1996) Evolution of the musculature of the jaw apparatus in the Amphibia. Advances in Amphibian Research in the Former Soviet Union 1:3–26
Jiang X, Iseki S, Maxson RE, Sucov HM, Morriss-Kay GM (2002) Tissue origins and interactions in the mammalian skull vault. Dev Biol 241:106–116
Johansen K, Hanson D (1968) Functional anatomy of the hearts of lungfishes and amphibians. Am Zool 8:191–210
Johnston P (2011) Cranial muscles of the anurans Leiopelma hochstetteri and Ascaphus truei and the homologies of the mandibular adductors in Lissamphibia and other gnathostomes. J Morphol 272:1492–1512
Kesteven HL (1942–45) The evolution of the skull and the cephalic muscles: a comparative study of their development and adult morphology. Part I. The fishes. Australian Museum Memoir 8:1–63
Kleinteich T, Haas A (2007) Cranial musculature in the larva of the caecilian, Ichthyophis kohtaoensis (Lissamphibia: Gymnophiona). J Morph 268:74–88
Kundrát M, Joss JM, Smith MM (2008) Fate mapping in embryos of Neoceratodus forsteri reveals cranial neural crest participation in tooth development is conserved from lungfish to tetrapods. Evol Dev 10:531–536
Kuratani S, Adachi N, Wada N, Oisi Y, Sugahara F (2013) Developmental and evolutionary significance of the mandibular arch and prechordal/premandibular cranium in vertebrates: revising the heterotopy scenario of gnathostome jaw evolution. J Anat 222:41–55
Kusakabe R, Kuratani S (2005) Evolution and developmental patterning of the vertebrate skeletal muscles: perspectives from the lamprey. Dev Dyn 234:824–834
Lauder GV, Reilly SM (1988) Functional design of the feeding mechanism in salamanders: causal bases of ontogenetic changes in function. J Exp Biol 134:219–233
Lescroart F, Kelly RG, Le Garrec J-F, Nicolas J-F, Meilhac SM, Buckingham M (2010) Clonal analysis reveals common lineage relationships between head muscles and second heart field derivatives in the mouse embryo. Development 137:3269–3279
Lescroart F, Hamou W, Francou A, Théveniau-Ruissy M, Kelly RG, Buckingham M (2015) Clonal analysis reveals a common origin between nonsomite-derived neck muscles and heart myocardium. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112:1446–1451
Lightoller G (1939) Probable homologues. A study of the comparative anatomy of the mandibular and hyoid arches and their musculature. Part I. Comparative myology. Trans Zool Soc London 24:349–402
Lubosch W (1914) Vergleichende Anatomie der Kaumuskeln der Wirbeltiere, in fünf Teilen. Erster Teil: Die Kaumuskeln der Amphibien. Jen Z Naturwissenschaften 53:51–188
Luther A (1914) Über die vom N. trigeminus versorgte Muskulatur der Amphibien mit einem vergleichenden Ausblick über den Adductor mandibulae der Gnathostomen, und einem Beitrag zum Verständnis der Organisation der Anurenlarven. Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicæ 7:1–151
Lynn WG (1961) Types of amphibian metamorphosis. Am Zool 1:151–161
Manzano A, Abdala V (2003) The depressor mandibulae muscle in Anura. Alytes 20:93–131
Matsuoka T, Ahlberg PE, Kessaris N, Iannarelli P, Dennehy U, Richardson WD, McMahon AP, Koentges G (2005) Neural crest origins of the neck and shoulder. Nature 436:347–355
McBratney-Owen B, Iseki S, Bamforth S, Olsen B, Morriss-Kay G (2008) Development and tissue origins of the mammalian cranial base. Dev Biol 322:121–132
McClearn D, Noden DM (1988) Ontogeny of architectural complexity in embryonic quail visceral arch muscles. Am J Anat 183:277–293
McDiarmid RW, Altig R (1999) Tadpoles: the biology of anuran larvae. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Mickoleit G (2004) Phylogenetische Systematik der Wirbeltiere. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, München
Miller CT, Yelon D, Stainier DYR, Kimmel CB (2003) Two endothelin 1 effectors, hand2 and bapx1, pattern ventral pharyngeal cartilage and the jaw joint. Development 130:1353–1365
Müller H (2006) Ontogeny of the skull, lower jaw, and hyobranchial skeleton of Hypogeophis rostratus (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) revisited. J Morphol 267:968–986
Müller H, Oommen OV, Bartsch P (2005) Skeletal development of the direct-developing caecilian Gegeneophis ramaswamii (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae). Zoomorphology 124:171–188
Nathan E, Monovich A, Tirosh-Finkel L, Harrelson Z, Rousso T, Rinon A, Harel I, Evans SM, Tzahor E (2008) The contribution of Islet1-expressing splanchnic mesoderm cells to distinct branchiomeric muscles reveals significant heterogeneity in head muscle development. Development 135:647–657
Naumann B, Warth P, Olsson L, Konstantinidis P (2017) The development of the cucullaris muscle and the branchial musculature in the Longnose Gar (Lepisosteus osseus, Lepisosteiformes, Actinopterygii) and its implications for the evolution and development of the head/trunk interface in vertebrates. Evol Dev 19(6):263–276
Nishikawa A, Hayashi H (1995) Spatial, temporal and hormonal regulation of programmed muscle cell death during metamorphosis of the frog Xenopus laevis. Differentiation 59:207–214
Noden DM (1978) The control of avian cephalic neural crest cytodifferentiation: I. Skeletal and connective tissues. Dev Biol 67:296–312
Noden DM (1983) The role of the neural crest in patterning of avian cranial skeletal, connective, and muscle tissues. Dev Biol 96:144–165
Noden DM, Francis-West P (2006) The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles. Dev Dyn 235:1194–1218
Nussbaum RA (1983) The evolution of a unique dual jaw-closing mechanism in caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) and its bearing on caecilian ancestry. J Zool 199:545–554
O’Reilly JC, Deban SM, Nishikawa KC (2002) Derived life history characteristics constrain the evolution of aquatic feeding behavior in adult amphibians. In: Aerts P, D’Août K, Herrel A, Van Damme R (eds) Topics in functional and ecological vertebrate morphology. Shaker, Maastricht, pp 153–190
Olsson L, Hanken J (1996) Cranial neural-crest migration and chondrogenic fate in the oriental fire-bellied toad Bombina orientalis: defining the ancestral pattern of head development in anuran amphibians. J Morphol 229:105–120
Olsson L, Falck P, Lopez K, Cobb J, Hanken J (2001) Cranial neural crest cells contribute to connective tissue in cranial muscles in the anuran amphibian, Bombina orientalis. Dev Biol 237:354–367
Olsson L, Ericsson R, Cerny R (2005) Vertebrate head development: segmentation, novelties, and homology. Theory Biosci 124:145–163
Pasqualetti M, Ori M, Nardi I, Rijli FM (2000) Ectopic Hoxa2 induction after neural crest migration results in homeosis of jaw elements in Xenopus. Development 127:5367–5378
Piatt J (1935) A comparative study of the hyobranchial apparatus and throat musculature in the Plethodontidae. J Morphol 57:213–251
Piatt J (1938) Morphogenesis of the cranial muscles of Ambystoma punctatum. J Morphol 63:531–587
Piekarski N, Olsson L (2007) Muscular derivatives of the cranial most somites revealed by long-term fate mapping in the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Evol Dev 9:566–578
Piekarski N, Gross JB, Hanken J (2014) Evolutionary innovation and conservation in the embryonic derivation of the vertebrate skull. Nat Commun 5:5661 9pp
Platt JB (1898) The development of the cartilaginous skull and of the branchial and hypoglossal musculature in Necturus. Morphologisches Jahrbuch 25:377–463
Ponssa ML, Candioti MFV (2012) Patterns of skull development in anurans: size and shape relationship during postmetamorphic cranial ontogeny in five species of the Leptodactylus fuscus Group (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Zoomorphology 131:349–362
Porro LB, Richards CT (2017) Digital dissection of the model organism Xenopus laevis using contrast-enhanced computed tomography. J Anat 231:169–191
Pusey HK (1943) On the head of the liopelmid frog, Ascaphus truei. I. The chondrocranium, jaws, arches, and muscles of a partly-grown larva. Quart J Micr Sci 84:105–195
Pyron RA, Wiens JJ (2011) A large-scale phylogeny of Amphibia including over 2800 species, and a revised classification of extant frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. Mol Phylogenet Evol 61:543–583
Rana MS, Théveniau-Ruissy M, De Bono C, Mesbah K, Francou A, Rammah M, Domínguez JN, Roux M, Laforest B, Anderson RH, Mohun T, Zaffran S, Christoffels VM, Kelly RG (2014) Tbx1 coordinates addition of posterior second heart field progenitor cells to the arterial and venous poles of the heart. Circ Res 115:790–799
Reilly SM (1987) Ontogeny of the Hyobranchial apparatus in the salamanders Ambystoma talpoideum (Ambystomatidae) and Notophthalmus viridescens (Salamandridae): the ecological morphology of two neotenic strategies. J Morphol 191:205–214
Reisoli E, De Lucchini S, Nardi I, Ori M (2010) Serotonin 2B receptor signaling is required for craniofacial morphogenesis and jaw joint formation in Xenopus. Development 137:2927–2937
Reiss JO (1997) Early development of chondrocranium in the tailed frog Ascaphus truei (Amphibia: Anura): implications for anuran palatoquadrate homologies. J Morphol 231:63–100
Reiss JO (2002) The phylogeny of amphibian metamorphosis. Zoology 105:85–96
Rijli FM, Gavalas A, Chambon P (1998) Segmentation and specification in the branchial region of the head: the role of the Hox selector genes. Int J Dev Biol 42:393–401
Rinon A, Lazar S, Marshall H, Büchmann-Møller S, Neufeld A, Elhanany-Tamir H, Taketo MM, Sommer L, Krumlauf R, Tzahor E (2007) Cranial neural crest cells regulate head muscle patterning and differentiation during vertebrate embryogenesis. Development 134:3065–3075
Rocek Z (1989) Developmental patterns of the ethmoidal region of the anuran skull. In: Fortschritte der Zoologie/progress in zoology, Splechtna and Hilgers, vol 35. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, pp 412–415
Ruibal R, Thomas E (1988) The obligate carnivorous larvae of the frog, Lepidobatrachus laevis (Leptodactylidae). Copeia 1988(3):591–604
Sadaghiani B, Thiébaud CH (1987) Neural crest development in the Xenopus laevis embryo, studied by interspecific transplantation and scanning electron microscopy. Dev Biol 124:91–110
Sambasivan R, Kuratani S, Tajbakhsh S (2011) An eye on the head: the development and evolution of craniofacial muscles. Development 138:2401–2415
Santagati F, Rijli FM (2003) Cranial neural crest and the building of the vertebrate head. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:806–820
Sato T, Kurihara Y, Asai R, Kawamura Y, Tonami K, Uchijima Y, Heude E, Ekker M, Levi G, Kurihara H (2008) An endothelin-1 switch specifies maxillomandibular identity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:18806–18811
Sauka-Spengler T, Bronner-Fraser M (2008) A gene regulatory network orchestrates neural crest formation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9:557
Schilling TF, Kimmel CB (1997) Musculoskeletal patterning in the pharyngeal segments of the zebrafish embryo. Development 124:2945–2960
Schlosser G (2003) Mosaic evolution of neural development in anurans: acceleration of spinal cord development in the direct developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui. Anat Embryol 206:215–227
Schlosser G, Roth G (1995) Nerves in tadpoles of Discoglossus pictus: distribution of cranial and rostral spinal nerves in tadpoles of the frog Discoglossus pictus (Discoglossidae). J Morph 226:189–212
Schlosser G, Roth G (1997) Evolution of nerve development in Frogs II: modified development of the peripheral nervous system in the direct-developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui (Leptodactylidae). Brain Behav Evol 50:94–128
Schneider RA (1999) Neural crest can form cartilages normally derived from mesoderm during development of the avian head skeleton. Dev Biol 208:441–455
Sedra SN, Michael IM (1957) The development of the skull, visceral arches, larynx and visceral muscles of the South African clawed toad, Xenopus laevis (Daudin) during the process of metamorphosis (from Stage 55 to Stage 66). Amsterdam, Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, AFD. Natuurkunde
Sefton EM, Piekarski N, Hanken J (2015) Dual embryonic origin and patterning of the pharyngeal skeleton in the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Evol Dev 17:175–184
Sefton EM, Bhullar B-AS, Mohaddes Z, Hanken J (2016) Evolution of the head-trunk interface in tetrapod vertebrates. elife 5:e09972
Shih HP, Gross MK, Kioussi C (2007) Cranial muscle defects of Pitx2 mutants result from specification defects in the first branchial arch. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104:5907–5912
Slater BJ, Liu KJ, Kwan MD, Quarto N, Longaker MT (2009) Cranial osteogenesis and suture morphology in Xenopus laevis: a unique model system for studying craniofacial development. PLoS One 4:e3914
Smith KK (2002) Sequence heterochrony and the evolution of development. J Morphol 252:82–97
Sokol OM (1969) Feeding in the pipid frog Hymenochirus boettgeri (Tornier). Herpetologica 25:9–24
Tajbakhsh S, Rocancourt D, Cossu G, Buckingham M (1997) Redefining the genetic hierarchies controlling skeletal myogenesis: Pax-3 and Myf-5 act upstream of MyoD. Cell 89:127–138
Tata JR (2006) Amphibian metamorphosis as a model for the developmental actions of thyroid hormone. Mol Cell Endocrinol 246:10–20
Taylor EH (1969) Skulls of gymnophiona and their significance in the taxonomy of the group. University of Kansas Publications, Lawrence, Kan
Theis S, Patel K, Valasek P, Otto A, Pu Q, Harel I, Tzahor E, Tajbakhsh S, Christ B, Huang R (2010) The occipital lateral plate mesoderm is a novel source for vertebrate neck musculature. Development 137:2961–2971
Trainor PA, Krumlauf R (2001) Hox genes, neural crest cells and branchial arch patterning. Curr Opin Cell Biol 13:698–705
Trueb L, Hanken J (1992) Skeletal Development in Xenopus laevis (Anura: Pipidae). J Morphol 214:1–41
Vera Candioti MF (2005) Morphology and feeding in tadpoles of Ceratophrys cranwelli (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Acta Zool 86:1–11
Vera Candioti F, Grosso J, Haad B, Pereyra MO, Bornschein MR, Borteiro C, Costa P, Kolenc F, Pie MR, Proaño B (2016) Structural and heterochronic variations during the early ontogeny in toads (Anura: Bufonidae). Herpetol Monogr 30:79–118
Visser MHC (1963) The cranial morphology of Ichthyophis glutinosus (Linné) and Ichthyophis monochrous (Bleeker). Ann Univ Stellenbosch A 38:67–102
Wada N, Nohno T, Kuratani S (2011) Dual origins of the prechordal cranium in the chicken embryo. Dev Biol 356:529–540
Wake MH, Hanken J (1982) Development of the skull of Dermophis mexicanus (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), with comments on skull kinesis and amphibian relationships. J Morphol 173:203–223
Wake MH, Exbrayat J-M, Delsol M (1985) The development of the chondrocranium of Typhlonectes compressicaudus (Gymnophiona), with comparison to other species. J Herpetol 19:68–77
Weisbecker V, Mitgutsch C (2010) A large-scale survey of heterochrony in anuran cranial ossification patterns. J Zool Syst Evol Res 48:332–347
Wilkinson M, Nussbaum RA (1997) Comparative morphology and evolution of the lungless caecilian Atretochoana eiselti (Taylor) (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Typhlonectidae). Biol J Linn Soc 62:39–109
Ziermann JM (2008) Evolutionäre Entwicklung larvaler Cranialmuskulatur der Anura und der Einfluss von Sequenzheterochronien. Dr. PhD, Friedrich Schiller University Jena
Ziermann JM, Diogo R (2013) Cranial muscle development in the model organism Ambystoma mexicanum: implications for tetrapod and vertebrate comparative and evolutionary morphology and notes on ontogeny and phylogeny. Anat Rec 296:1031–1048
Ziermann JM, Diogo R (2014) Cranial muscle development in frogs with different developmental modes: direct development vs. biphasic development. J Morphol 275:398–413
Ziermann JM, Olsson L (2007) Patterns of spatial and temporal cranial muscle development in the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis (Anura: Pipidae). J Morphol 268:791–804
Ziermann JM, Infante C, Hanken J, Olsson L (2013) Morphology of the cranial skeleton and musculature in the obligate carnivorous tadpole of Lepidobatrachus laevis (Anura: Ceratophryidae). Acta Zool 94:101–112
Ziermann JM, Mitgutsch C, Olsson L (2014a) Analyzing developmental sequences with Parsimov—a case study of cranial muscle development in anuran larvae. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 322B:584–604
Ziermann JM, Miyashita T, Diogo R (2014b) Cephalic muscles of cyclostomes (hagfishes and lampreys) and Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays and holocephalans): comparative anatomy and early evolution of the vertebrate head muscles. Zool J Linnean Soc 172:771–802
Ziermann JM, Fahimuddin F, Forrester A, Singh S (2017a) The cardiopharyngeal field in the light of evolutionary medicine—implications for human syndromes. J Hum Anat 1:10 https://medwinpublishers.com/JHUA/JHUA16000110.pdf
Ziermann JM, Clement AM, Ericsson R, Olsson L (2017b) Cephalic muscle development in the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri. J Morphol 279:494. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20784
Ziermann JM, Freitas R, Diogo R (2017c) Muscle development in the shark Scyliorhinus canicula: implications for the evolution of the gnathostome head and paired appendage musculature. Front Zool 14:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12983-12017-10216-y.
Ziermann JM, Diogo R, Noden DM (2018) Neural crest and the patterning of vertebrate craniofacial muscles. Genesis J Genet Dev 56:e23097
Acknowledgment
The helpful review from Virginia Abdala improved the quality of the text.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ziermann, J.M. (2019). Diversity of Heads, Jaws, and Cephalic Muscles in Amphibians. In: Ziermann, J., Diaz Jr, R., Diogo, R. (eds) Heads, Jaws, and Muscles. Fascinating Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93560-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93560-7_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-93559-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-93560-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)