Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Autism and Child Psychopathology Series ((ACPS))

  • 2246 Accesses

Abstract

Epidemiological studies suggest that a majority of children will experience at least one traumatic event by the time they reach adolescence. Thus, the need for accurate assessment and identification of posttraumatic reactions in youth following a potentially traumatic event is imperative. This chapter reviews diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children and adolescents based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5; American Psychological Association, 2013), highlighting major changes between the current and previous iterations of the DSM. The chapter also includes a summary of factors necessary to consider throughout the evaluation process and during case conceptualization. Finally, the chapter reviews a host of assessment tools specifically developed to assess PTSD in youth, which are commonly used in clinical practice and research. The chapter concludes with a summary of the limitations of current measures and future directions for research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1966). The classification of children’s psychiatric symptoms: A factor-analytic study. Psychological Monographs: General And Applied, 80(7), 1–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, NJ: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alisic, E., Zalta, A. K., van Wesel, F., Larsen, S. E., Hafstad, G. S., Hassanpour, K., & Smid, G. (2014). Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: Meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204, 335–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Fifth edition. American Psychiatric Association, Washington.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • American Red Cross (2016). Helping kids cope with disaster. Retrieved from https://redcrosschat.org/2016/11/10/helping-kids-cope-with-disaster/.

  • Atwoli, L., Stein, D. J., Koenen, K. C., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2015). Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: Prevalence, correlates and consequences. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 28(4), 307.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, D. M., & Weems, C. F. (2014). Family and peer social support and their links to psychological distress among hurricane-exposed minority youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(4), 341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Zoellner, L. A. (2008). The utility of the A1 and A2 criteria in the diagnosis of PTSD. Behavior Research and Therapy, 46, 1062–1069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boal, A. L., Vaughan, C. A., Sims, C. S., & Miles, J. N. (2017). Measurement invariance across administration mode: Examining the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) checklist. Psychological Assessment, 29(1), 76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A., & Diminich, E. D. (2013). Annual research review: Positive adjustment to adversity—Trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(4), 278–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino, J. A., & Adams, R. E. (2009). PTSD onset and course following the world trade center disaster: Findings and implications for future research. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44(10), 887–898.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Botey, A. P., & Kulig, J. C. (2014). Family functioning following wildfires: Recovering from the 2011 slave lake fires. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(8), 1471–1483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). The stressor criterion in DMS-IV posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 699–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptom checklist for children(TSCC): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (2005). Trauma symptom checklist for young children (TSCYC): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., Kaltman, S., & Green, B. L. (2008). Accumulated childhood trauma and symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(2), 223–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, E. C., Nooner, K., & Amaya-Jackson, L. M. (2014). In M. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 391–406). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Gudiño, O. G., & Laraque, D. (2013). Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in pediatric primary care: Association with child maltreatment and frequency of child exposure to traumatic events. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(11), 1011–1018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cintron, G., Salloum, A., Blair-Andrews, Z., & Storch, E. A. (2017). Parents’ descriptions of young children’s dissociative reactions after trauma. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloitre, M., Morin, N., & Silva, R. (2002). The NYU child and adolescent stressors checklist—Revised (CASC). Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., … Mallah, K. (2017). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, L., & Siegel, L. J. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review and analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(3), 135–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehon, C., & Scheeringa, M. S. (2006). Screening for preschool posttraumatic stress disorder with the child behavior checklist. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(4), 431–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiNardo, P. A., O’Brien, G. T., Barlow, D. H., Waddell, M. T., & Blanchard, E. B. (1983). Reliability of DSM-III anxiety disorder categories using a new structured interview. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1070–1074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyregrov, A., & Yule, W. (2006). A review of PTSD in children. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 11(4), 176–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eddinger, J. R., & McDevitt-Murphy, M. E. (2017). A confirmatory factor analysis of the PTSD checklist 5 in veteran and college student samples. Psychiatry Research, 255, 219–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2004). The preschool age psychiatric assessment (PAPA): A structured parent interview for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in preschool children. In Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment (pp. 223–243). Oxford/New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H. L., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., Walter, B. K., & Angold, A. (2006). Test-retest reliability of the preschool age psychiatric assessment (PAPA). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(5), 538–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., Putnam, F. W., & Harris, W. W. (2014). Child traumatic stress: Prevalence, trends, risk and impact. In M. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 121–145). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fan, F., Zhang, Y., Yang, Y., Mo, L., & Liu, X. (2011). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety among adolescents following the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(1), 44–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., … Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fikretoglu, D., & Liu, A. (2011). Prevalence, correlates, and clinical features of delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder in a nationally representative military sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1359–1366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, K. (1996). Psychometric review of the childhood PTSD interview. In B. H. Stamm (Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation (pp. 87–89). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. H. (2001). The child PTSD symptom scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 376–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. J., Resick, P. A., & Keane, T. M. (2014). PTSD from DSM-III to DSM-5: Progress and challenges. In M. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh-Ippen, C., Ford, J., Racusin, R., Acker, M., Bosquet, K., Rogers, C., & Edwards, J. (2002). Trauma events screening inventory-parent report revised. San Francisco: The Child Trauma Research Project of the Early Trauma Network and The National Center for PTSD Dartmouth Child Trauma Research Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, A.M. (2004). Psychometric properties of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Alliant University, San Diego, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, R. B., Smith, S. M., Chou, S. P., Saha, T. D., Jung, J., Zhang, H., … Grant, B. F. (2016). The epidemiology of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions-III. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(8), 1137–1148.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L., Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., & Stern, N. M. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(2), 271–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, M. J., Sulik, M. J., & Lieberman, A. F. (2016). Traumatic life events and psychopathology in a high risk, ethnically diverse sample of young children: A person-centered approach. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(5), 833–844.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. E. (2016). Development of the Early Childhood Traumatic Stress Screen (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havens, J. F., Gudino, O. G., Biggs, E. A., Diamond, U. N., Weis, J. R., & Cloitre, M. (2012). Identification of trauma exposure and PTSD in adolescent psychiatric inpatients: An exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(2), 171–178.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Lucas, C. P., Wu, P., Mandell, D. J., Goodwin, R. D., … Musa, G. J. (2005). Psychopathology among new York City public school children 6 months after September 11. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(5), 545–551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. T., Fletcher, K., & Ribbe, D. R. (2002). Child’s Reaction to Traumatic Events Scale-Revised (CRTES-R): A self- report traumatic stress measure. Available from Russell T. Jones, PhD, Professor, Department of Psychology, Stress and Coping Lab, 4102 Derring Hall, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA 24060.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamphaus, R. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2015). Behavior Assessment System for Children – Third Edition (BASC-3): Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BESS). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karam, E. G., Andrews, G., Bromet, E., Petukhova, M., Rusico, A. M., Salamoun, M., Sampson, N., Stein, D. J., Alsono, J., Andrade, L.H, et al. (2010). The role of criterion A2 in the DSM-IV Diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Pyschiatry, 68, 465–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U. M. A., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., … Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. L., Self-Brown, S., Le, B., Bosson, J. V., Hernandez, B. C., & Gordon, A. T. (2010). Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following hurricane Katrina: A prospective analysis of the effect of parental distress and parenting practices. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(5), 582–590.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kenardy, J., Spence, S., & Macleod, A. (2006). Screening for posttraumatic stress disorder in children after accidental injury. Pediatrics, 118, 1002–1009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K., Fedorowicz, A. E., Brown, C. A., & Warren, M. (2000). Assessment and intervention for PTSD in children exposed to violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 3(1), 161–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the National Survey of adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirsch, V., Wilhelm, F. H., & Goldbeck, L. (2011). Psychophysiological characteristics of PTSD in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(2), 146–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1985). The children’s depression inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., Danzi, B. A., & Chan, S. F. (2017). DSM-5 and ICD-11 as competing models of PTSD in preadolescent children exposed to a natural disaster: Assessing validity and co-occurring symptomatology. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1310591.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., Lai, B., & Jaccard, J. (2010). Hurricane-related exposure experiences and stressors, other life events, and social support: Concurrent and prospective impact on children’s persistent posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(6), 794.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., Alisic, E., Lewis, R., & Ronan, K. R. (2016). Approaches to the assessment of children in the context of disasters. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(5), 45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., Auslander, B. A., Fitzpatrick, S. L., & Podkowirow, V. (2014). Disasters and depressive symptoms in children: A review. Child & Youth Care Forum, 43(4), 489–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., Kelley, M. L., Harrison, K. M., Thompson, J. E., & Self-Brown, S. (2015). Posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms among children after hurricane Katrina: A latent profile analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(5), 1262–1270.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., La Greca, A. M., Auslander, B. A., & Short, M. B. (2013). Children’s symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression after a natural disaster: Comorbidity and risk factors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 146(1), 71–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., Lewis, R., Livings, M. S., Greca, A. M., & Esnard, A. M. (2017). Posttraumatic stress symptom trajectories among children after disaster exposure: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(6), 571–582.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, B. S., Tiwari, A., Beaulieu, B. A., Self-Brown, S., & Kelley, M. L. (2015). Hurricane Katrina: Maternal depression trajectories and child outcomes. Current Psychology, 34(3), 515–523.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, A., Lyons, J. S., Griffin, G., & Kisiel, C. (2015). Multiple traumatic experiences and the expression of traumatic stress symptoms for children and adolescents. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 32(2), 167–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le, M. T., Holton, S., Romero, L., & Fisher, J. (2016). Polyvictimization among children and adolescents in low-and lower-middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1524838016659489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, E., Yule, W., & Smith, P. (2016). Measurement issues: Measurement of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and young people–lessons from research and practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 21(2), 124–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S. (2012). Manual for the multidimensional anxiety scale for children-(MASC 2). North Tonawanda, NY: MHS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85, 6–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., Greif Green, J., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavasky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2012). Childhood adversities and the first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national ample of US adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(11), 1151–1160.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2007). Parent and child agreement for acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychopathology in a prospective study of children and adolescents exposed to single-event trauma. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 191–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mevissen, L., Barnhoorn, E., Didden, R., Korzilius, H., & De Jongh, A. (2014). Clinical assessment of PTSD in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities: A pilot study. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 17(1), 16–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mevissen, L., & De Jongh, A. (2010). PTSD and its treatment in people with intellectual disabilities: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(3), 308–316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mevissen, L., Didden, R., Korzilius, H., & de Jongh, A. (2016). Assessing posttraumatic stress disorder in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullett-Hume, E., Anshel, D., Guevara, V., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Cumulative trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among children exposed to the 9/11 world trade center attack. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(1), 103–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., & Fletcher, K. E. (2014). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. In Child psychopathology. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K. K. O., Newman, E., Weathers, F. W., Kaloupek, D. G., Kriegler, J. A., & Blake, D. D. (1996). National center for PTSD clinician-administered PTSD scale for children and adolescents (CAPS-CA) interview booklet and interview guide. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Child Traumatic Stress Network, & Child Sexual Abuse Task Force and Research & Practice Core. (2004). How to implement trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy. Durham, NC/Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Commission on Children and Disasters (2010). Report to the President and Congress Phillips, J. (2015). PTSD in DSM-5: Understanding the changes. Psychiatric Times, 32(9), 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, E., Weathers, F. W., Nader, K., Kaloupek, D. G., Pynoos, R. S., & Blake, D. D. (2004). Clinician-administered PTSD scale for children and adolescents (CAPS-CA). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson, D., Nordenstam, C., Green, S., Wetterhall, A., Lundin, T., & Svedin, C. G. (2015). Acute stress among adolescents and female rape victims measured by ASC-kids: A pilot study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 69(7), 539–545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nixon, R., Meiser-Stedman, R., Dalgleish, T., Yule, W., Clark, D. M., Perrin, S., & Smith, P. (2013). The child PTSD symptom scale: An update and replication of its psycho-metric properties. Psychological Assessment, 25, 1025–1031.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pai, A., Surris, A. M., & North, C. S. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the DSM-5: Controversy, change, and conceptual considerations. Behavioral Sciences, 7(1), 7.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Panagioti, M., Gooding, P. A., Triantafyllou, K., & Tarrier, N. (2015). Suicidality and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(4), 525–537.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., & Shaw, J. A. (2013). Practice parameter on disaster preparedness. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(11), 1224–1238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., … Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia-suicide severity rating scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1266–1277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., La Greca, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., & Silverman, W. K. (1996). Children’s coping assistance: How parents, teachers, and friends help children cope after a natural disaster. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25(4), 463–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., Weathers, F. W., Steinberg, A. M., Marx, B. P., Layne, C. M., Kaloupek, D. G., ... Kriegler, J. A. (2015). Clinician-Administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 – Child/Adolescent version. Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov

  • Reich, W., Leacock, N., & Shanfield, C. (1994). Diagnostic inter-view for children and adolescents-revised (DICA-R). St. Louis, MO: Washington University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, W. M. (1987). Suicidal ideation questionnaire (SIQ). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P. A. (2004). The children’s posttraumatic stress disorder inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P. A., Yasik, A. E., Oberfield, R. A., Green, B. L., Halamandaris, P. V., Rubenstein, H., … McHugh, M. (2000). The children’s PTSD inventory: Development and reliability. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 369–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saltzman, K. M., Weems, C. F., & Carrion, V. G. (2006). IQ and posttraumatic stress disorder in children that experience interpersonal violence. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36, 261–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Macias, M., Wohlfeiler, M., Morgan, L., & Awkerman, N. G. (2009). Exposure to potentially traumatic life events in children with special needs. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(3), 451–465.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Swenson, C. C., Stokes Reynolds, S., & Taylor, M. (1999). The pediatric emotional distress scale: A brief screening measure for young children exposed to traumatic events. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28(1), 70–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder. In Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment (pp. 377–397). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S. (2008). Developmental considerations for diagnosing PTSD and acute stress disorder in preschool and school-age children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1237–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S. (2010). Young child PTSD checklist. New Orleans, LA: Tulane University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. (2012). Young child PTSD screen. Measurement instrument database for the social science. Retrieved from www.midss.ie

  • Scheeringa, M. S. (2015). Untangling psychiatric comorbidity in young children who experienced single, repeated, or hurricane Katrina traumatic events. Child & Youth Care Forum, 44(4), 475–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., & Haslett, N. (2010). The reliability and criterion validity of the diagnostic infant and preschool assessment: A new diagnostic instrument for young children. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(3), 299–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Myers, L., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 561–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M., Scheeringa, M. S., Cohen, J. A., Deblinger, E., Mannarino, A. P., Steer, R. A., … Guthrie, D. (2010). Young child PTSD screen. Orleans, LA: Tulane Univ (http://www.infantinstitute.org/MikeSPDF/YCPS_versFeb2011.pdf)

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., & Cohen, J. A. (2011). PTSD in children and adolescents: Toward an empirically based algorithm. Depression and Anxiety, 28(9), 770–782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Self-Brown, S., Lai, B. S., Thompson, J. E., McGill, T., & Kelley, M. L. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom trajectories in hurricane Katrina affected youth. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147(1), 198–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Self-Brown, S., Lai, B., Harbin, S., & Kelley, M. L. (2014). The impact of parental posttraumatic stress disorder symptom trajectories on the long-term outcomes of youth following hurricane Katrina. International Journal of Public Health, 59(6), 957.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P., Perrin, S., Dyregrov, A., & Yule, W. (2003). Principal components analysis of the impact of event scale with children in war. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 315–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spell, A. W., Kelley, M. L., Wang, J., Self-Brown, S., Davidson, K. L., Pellegrin, A., … Baumeister, A. (2008). The moderating effects of maternal psychopathology on children’s adjustment post–hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 553–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Decker, K. B., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6, 96–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasulo, D. J., & Razza, N. J. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorders. In R. Fletcher, E. Loschen, C. Stavrakaki, & M. First (Eds.), Diagnostic manual--intellectual disability: A textbook of diagnosis of mental disorders in persons with intellectual disability (pp. 365–378). Kingston, NY: National Association for the Dually Diagnosed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trickey, D., Siddaway, A. P., Meiser-Stedman, R., Serpell, L., & Field, A. P. (2012). A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(2), 122–138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Meijel, E. P., Gigengack, M. R., Verlinden, E., Opmeer, B. C., Heij, H. A., Goslings, J. C., … Lindauer, R. J. (2015). Predicting posttraumatic stress disorder in children and parents following accidental child injury: Evaluation of the screening tool for early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder (STEPP). BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 113.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vernberg, E. M. (2002). Intervention approaches following disasters. In A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 55–72). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Vigna, J. F., Hernandez, B. C., Paasch, V., Gordon, A. T., & Kelley, M. L. (2009). Positive adjustment in youth post-katrina: The impact of child and maternal social support and coping. In K. Cherry (Ed.), Lifespan perspectives on natural disasters. New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD. Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., & Graham, R. A. (2014). Resilience and trajectories of posttraumatic stress among youth exposed to disaster. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 24(1), 2–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winston, F. K., Kassam-Adams, N., Garcia-Espana, F., Ittenbach, R., & Cnaan, A. (2003). Screening for risk of persistent posttraumatic stress in injured children and their parents. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 643–649.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2001) The World Health Report 2001: Mental health—new understanding, new hope. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W., Udwin, O., & Bolton, D. (2002). Mass transportation disasters. In: A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 223–240). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zolkoski, S. M., & Bullock, L. M. (2012). Resilience in children and youth: A review. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(12), 2295–2303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jennifer Piscitello .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Piscitello, J., Anderson, A., Gretkierewicz, S., Kelley, M.L. (2018). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Matson, J. (eds) Handbook of Childhood Psychopathology and Developmental Disabilities Assessment . Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93542-3_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics