Abstract
The Introduction explores the growing prominence of the dystopian imagination in contemporary Spanish literature and film in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis. It surveys various definitions and interpretations of dystopia employed in Spain, as well as those commonly used in the English-speaking world. Palardy provides the checklist she created to identify what qualifies as a dystopia and the criteria for determining which works to include in this study. Two of the key criteria are that the works deal (in)directly with the causes or effects of the 2008 economic crisis and are imbued with culturally charged spaces that capture the zeitgeist. Furthermore, she examines the role of urban cultural studies in the investigation and how the spatial constructions in the works underscore their dystopian atmosphere.
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Notes
- 1.
Unless otherwise noted, all translations in this book are my own.
- 2.
Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española, s.v. “distopía,” accessed February 7, 2018, http://dle.rae.es/?id=DyzvRef. Highly esteemed author and member of the Real Academia Española, José María Merino played a crucial role in convincing the Academy to introduce the word distopía into the dictionary.
- 3.
Several other anthologies and collections published recently also have a dystopian bent, like Las puertas de lo posible [Doors of possibility] (2008) by José María Merino, Futuros peligrosos [Dangerous futures] (2008) by Elia Barceló, Fugacidades distópicas [Dystopian fugacities] (2011) by Jaime Romero Ruiz de Castro (which falls under the category of fantasy in the Tercera Fundación [Third Foundation] database), Crónicas de la distopía [Chronicles of dystopia] (2012) by Víctor M. Valenzuela, Distopías de ayer y mañana [Dystopias of yesterday and tomorrow] by Tomás Blanco Claraco (2012), and Cryptshow presenta: Distopía [Cryptshow presents: Dystopia] (2015) edited by David G. González and Lluís Rueda.
- 4.
Villarreal, “Libros publicados.” It should be noted that the lists provided in the catalog of Literatura Fantástica are not exhaustive and that it is entirely possible that the tendency of publishers to increasingly identify more texts as dystopias may have been influenced by marketing interests, as well as the official coinage of the term in 2014.
- 5.
Costa, “El tiempo”; Morán, “Literatura distópica”; Arjona, “A la sombra.”
- 6.
Google Search, s.v. “distopia,” accessed February 7, 2018, https://www.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&geo=ES&q=distopia.
- 7.
Geli, “El Biblioteca breve”; López, “‘Rendición’, el nuevo libro.”
- 8.
There are several other manifestations of this increased interest in Spanish dystopias. The 66th issue of El Cuaderno (a cultural magazine affiliated with La Voz de Asturias and Ediciones Trea), titled “Como lágrimas en la lluvia: Nueva ficción distópica” (2015), featured articles written by distinguished authors like Agustín Fernández Mallo, who examined the threshold between dystopia and postapocalypse in contemporary Spanish literature and film. Also, round table talks on topics like “Utopía, capitalismo, distopía y postapocalipsis: narrativa realista en la España actual,” which took place at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid in 2014, have become more commonplace. In a round table discussion featuring some of Spain’s most preeminent science fiction authors in 2015, Elia Barceló, César Mallorquí, and Juan Miguel Aguilera affirmed that the genre of dystopia is currently thriving in Spain, due in large part to the shadow of pessimism cast by the 2008 financial crisis. See Zinos-Amaro, “Spanish Science Fiction.”
- 9.
Fraser, Toward an Urban Cultural, 20.
- 10.
While utopian architecture has been investigated at length within the field of utopian studies (as evidenced by Nathaniel Coleman’s Utopias and Architecture [2006] and frequent panels on utopian architecture at Society for Utopian Studies conferences), there has generally been less attention devoted to dystopian architecture.
- 11.
There are many other worthwhile academic studies on dystopian spatial representations. In Kate Brown’s Dispatches from Dystopia: Histories of Places Not Yet Forgotten, she seeks out microcosms of dystopias in real-life settings, and uncovers the significance of these culturally charged, yet often overlooked, rural and urban landscapes. Also relevant is the dissertation “The Global Dystopian: Twenty-First Century Globalization, Terrorism, and Urban Destruction” by Ryan Frank Peters and several of the chapters from Blast, Corrupt, Dismantle, Erase: Contemporary North American Dystopian Literature, edited by Brett Josef Grubisic, Gisèle M. Baxter, and Tara Lee. There are numerous articles in a similar vein, such as “Urban Spaces in Dystopian Science Fiction” by Daniel Ferreras Savoye, “La ciudad prospectiva” by Fernando Ángel Moreno and Ivana Palibrk, “Arquitectura y prospectividad en los fascismos” by Antonio Sánchez Domínguez, “Urban and Natural Spaces in Dystopian Literature Depicted as Opposed Scenarios” by Ángel Galdón Rodríguez, “La ciudad como sede de la imaginación distópica: Literatura, espacio y control” by Gabriela Rodríguez Fernández, and “Futuro imperfecto: Las ciudades del mañana en el cine” by Gabino Ponce Herrero. Of the more recent projects focused on urban dystopian spaces, perhaps the one that most resembles my own in its scope and approach is Jeffrey Loyl Hicks’ dissertation “The Dystopian Cityscape in Postmodern Literature and Film,” which centers on deep-rooted cultural problems in urban dystopian environments, ranging from topics like overpopulation and urban violence to gentrification and socioeconomic segregation.
- 12.
Fraser, Toward an Urban Cultural, 21.
- 13.
While not directly relevant, Nil Santiáñez’s Topographies of Fascism: Habitus, Space and Writing in Twentieth-Century Spain (2013) provides a useful framework for examining spatial applications of Bourdieu’s theories and is a meticulous cultural study of fascism.
- 14.
Susan Divine has written an insightful analysis of contemporary Spanish dystopias in her dissertation titled “Utopias of Thought, Dystopias of Space: Science Fiction in Contemporary Peninsular Narrative” (2009); however, she delves into only three works of fiction, Álex de la Iglesia’s Acción mutante [Mutant action] (1993), Gabriela Bustelo’s Planeta hembra [Female planet] (2001), and Rafael Reig’s Sangre a borbotones (which was published in English translation as Blood on the Saddle) (2002), all of which are set in Madrid after 1992. Although she also relies on an urban cultural studies approach, my investigation is distinct in that it examines different, more contemporary works of fiction and its scope is broader, as it is not limited to works set in Madrid. In a noteworthy thesis titled “En el peor lugar posible: teoría de lo distópico y su presencia en la narrativa tardofranquista española (1965–1975)” (2015), Gabriel Saldías Rossel focuses on numerous Spanish dystopias produced in the final years of the Franco regime. My study differs significantly because it is in English, it centers on an entirely different time period and theme, and it approaches the primary texts from an urban cultural studies perspective.
- 15.
Martín Rodríguez, “Bibliografía de tipo académico [I],” 31–62; Martín Rodríguez, “Bibliografía de tipo académico [II],” 43–67; Martín Rodríguez, “Bibliografía de tipo académico [complemento],” 43–46.
- 16.
“Enlaces.” Science fiction writers, critics, and fans also contribute to research on dystopias on their personal websites and blogs. On the website Literatura Prospectiva, there is an extensive list of links to sites for bloggers who write about speculative fiction in Spanish, as well as other helpful resources.
- 17.
There are a number of other expressions in Spanish that are commonly used in reference to science fiction that draw attention to different nuances, such as “literatura de anticipación” (anticipatory literature), “literatura especulativa” (speculative literature), and “literatura proyectiva” (projective literature). Fernando Ángel Moreno and Julián Díez have done extensive typological studies of science fiction.
- 18.
Díez, “Secesión,” 6.
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Moreno, Teoría de la literatura, 461.
- 21.
Aldridge, The Scientific World View, 17.
- 22.
Suvin, Metamorphoses of Science Fiction, 7–8.
- 23.
Merriam Webster, s.v. “cyberpunk,” accessed February 7, 2018, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyberpunk?utm_campaign=sd&utm_medium=serp&utm_source=jsonld.
- 24.
Díez, “El fraude.” Díez is not alone in criticizing the overuse of the term dystopia, as other Spanish critics and authors like Fernando Ángel Moreno, Santiago L. Moreno, and Ismael Martínez Biurrun share similar sentiments. Other critics like Alberto García-Teresa, Francisco Javier Matorrell Campos, Luis Núñez Ladevéze, Estrella López Keller, Juan Ignacio Ferreras, Mariano Martín Rodríguez, Rafael Herrera Guillén, and Rodolfo Martínez are among the Spaniards who have theorized on the concept of dystopia.
- 25.
Moreno, Teoría de la literatura, 120.
- 26.
Díez, “El fraude .” Díez also claims: “La sencilla idea de llevar nuestra sociedad española, europea, a las consecuencias futuras de su actual situación no ha sido afrontado por nadie. No hay novelas que hablen seriamente … de una sociedad en la que las diferencias entre el 1% más rico y el resto se vayan acentuando, de un país en el que las condiciones laborales se precaricen al punto de que cada trabajador se levante cada mañana sin saber si tendrá o no ingresos porque la flexibilidad laboral ha creado un mercado totalmente dinámico” (The simple idea of bringing forth our Spanish [European] society to the future consequences of its current situation has not been addressed by anyone. There are no novels that speak seriously … about a society in which the differences between the richest 1% and the rest are growing, about a country in which the labor conditions are becoming so precarious that each worker gets up every morning without knowing if they will get paid or not because the flexibility of labor has created a totally dynamic market). Ibid.
- 27.
Sargent, “Three Faces of Utopianism,” 9. Arthur O. Lewis gathered together a variety of terms referring to works that criticize utopias such as “anti-utopia,” “reverse utopias,” “negative utopias,” “inverted utopias,” “regressive utopias,” “cacotopias,” “dystopias,” “non-utopias,” “satiric utopias,” and “nasty utopias.” Lewis, “The Anti-Utopian Novel,” 27. To this list, David Sisk adds “sour utopias in the apocalyptic mode,” “negative quasi-Utopias,” “heterotopias,” and “(feminist) critical dystopias.” Sisk, Transformations of Language, 5. As discussed in Greg Claeys’ Dystopia: A Natural History, it used to be commonly believed that the term dystopia was first employed by John Stuart Mill in 1868 in reference to Jeremy Bentham’s “cacotopia” (evil place) or that it was first coined in Glenn Negley and J. Max Patrick’s The Quest for Utopia (1952); nevertheless, the term dystopia first appeared as “dustopia” in 1747 on page four of Henry Lewis Younge’s Utopia: or Apollo’s Golden Days. See Claeys, Dystopia: A Natural History, 274–75.
- 28.
One of the most common hybridizations that I have observed in contemporary Spanish literature is between dystopia and detective fiction, an area which Stewart King has investigated at length in his article “Distopía y detectives: la ficción criminal de Jordi de Manuel.”
- 29.
Codony, “Mañana todavía, menos.”
- 30.
While “antiutopía” (anti-utopia) and “distopía” (dystopia) have often been considered to be synonymous (in English and in Spanish), the terms are not necessarily interchangeable. Sargent defines anti-utopia as “a non-existent society described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space that the author intended the contemporaneous reader to view as a criticism of utopianism or some particular eutopia. ” Sargent, “Three Faces of Utopianism,” 155. However, dystopias, as Antonis Balasopoulos affirms, “do not presuppose or effect a total rejection of the Utopian impulse and of Utopian aspirations.” Balasopoulos, “Anti-Utopia and Dystopia,” 63. Balasopoulos goes on to argue that dystopias are “subjective, i.e., explicitly marked as originating from the positions of a concretely situated subject, rather than from a putatively objective position of evaluation” (thus implying that the subject that interprets the ethical implications of the events that transpire is a character within the narration, likely the narrator), adopt principally a narrative form, and are “politically and ideologically ambiguous.” Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid., 64–66.
- 32.
Moylan and Baccolini, “Critical Dystopia and Possibilities,” 233–50.
- 33.
Atwood, “Dire Cartographies.”
- 34.
Claeys, “Three Variants,” 15.
- 35.
Kumar, Utopia and Anti-Utopia, 105.
- 36.
Walsh, From Utopia to Nightmare, 26.
- 37.
Conversely, even if nearly all the responses are positive on the checklist, it does not necessarily mean that a work is a dystopia. However, it is likely to have a very dystopian feel, or score high on Codony’s distopina scale. For example, literary critics like Sargent would probably affirm that Blaine Harden’s real-life account of a North Korean man’s escape from prison in Escape from Camp 14 cannot be a dystopia because it is not hypothetical, yet it would fulfill virtually all my other criteria for a dystopia. The experience of reading the book was almost the same as if I were reading a dystopia (save for the astonishment that such events could actually take place in contemporary times). Even so, if one insists that one of the essential, defining features of a dystopia is that it be a nonexistent society, then one must concede that Harden’s text is not a dystopia. Thus, some of the criteria, especially those dealing with the core definition of the genre, carry more weight. There are those who would probably differ in this perspective, like Ruth Levitas, who argues that “Dystopias are not necessarily fictional in form,” and Erika Gottlieb, who contends that many Central and Eastern European novels that realistically portray the conditions in contemporary society could also be dystopias because they strongly resemble novels such as Brave New World and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). Levitas, The Concept of Utopia, 195; Gottlieb, Dystopian Fiction.
- 38.
Fernández Bremón, “El futuro dictador”; Loriga, Rendición…
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Palardy, D.Q. (2018). Introduction. In: The Dystopian Imagination in Contemporary Spanish Literature and Film. Hispanic Urban Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92885-2_1
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