Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The United States Virgin Islands

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems

Part of the book series: Coral Reefs of the World ((CORW,volume 12))

Abstract

Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) at 30–100 m depth are the dominant hard bottom habitat in the US Virgin Islands of the northeastern Caribbean Sea. Well-developed MCEs surpass the extent of shallow coral reefs by almost a factor of three. These habitats range from high coral cover structural reefs to low coral cover hard bottoms on banks, slopes, and walls. The most common communities in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) are star coral (Orbicella franksi) banks that are concentrated in a relatively large area (187 km2) south and southwest of St. Thomas in depths of 30–43 m. Wall and slope coral communities in upper (30–60 m) and lower MCE (60–100 m) depths are dominated by lettuce corals (Agaricia spp.) Most MCEs are heavily covered in macroalgae, particularly Lobophora variegata. Corals are species rich in many upper MCE habitats (20–28 species) compared with shallow reefs (31), but not in upper and lower MCE slopes and walls (6–8). Sponges are species rich (24–53 species) in the MCEs of the USVI and may contribute much to nutrient cycling. Fishes are also species rich across habitats (45–151 species), but often their biomass is dominated by a few species, particularly on edges with high abundances of planktivores and piscivores. Despite their importance to the ecology and economy of USVI, MCEs are threatened by a variety of local and global stressors and disturbances that are causing declines in coral cover.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alminas HV, Foord EE (1994) Geochemistry, mineralogy, and geochronology of the U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2057. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC, 35 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Andradi-Brown DA, Vermeij MJA, Slattery M, Lesser M, Bejarano I, Appeldoorn R, Goodbody-Gringley G, Chequer AD, Pitt JM, Eddy C, Smith SR, Brokovich E, Pinheiro HT, Jessup ME, Shepherd B, Rocha LA, Curtis-Quick J, Eyal G, Noyes TJ, Rogers AD, Exton DA (2017) Large-scale invasion of western Atlantic mesophotic reefs by lionfish potentially undermines culling-based management. Biol Invasions 19:939–954

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Singh H, Torres J, Nemeth RS, Can A, Roman C, Eustice R, Riggs L, Garcia-Moliner G (2006) Characterizing the deep insular shelf coral reef habitat of the Hind Bank marine conservation district (US Virgin Islands) using the Seabed autonomous underwater vehicle. Cont Shelf Res 26:194–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronson RB, Sebens KP, Ebersole JP (1994) Hurricane Hugo’s impact on Salt River submarine canyon, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. In: Proceedings of the colloquim on global aspects of coral reefs: health, hazards, and history. University of Miami, Miami, pp 189–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Beets J, Friedlander A (1999) Evaluation of a conservation strategy: a spawning aggregation closure for red hind, Epinephelus guttatus, in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Environ Biol Fish 55:91–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs CR, Nemeth RS (2016) Spatial and temporal movement patterns of two snapper species at a multi-species spawning aggregation. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 558:129–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bongaerts P, Frade PR, Hay KB, Englebert N, Latijnhouwers KRW, Bak RPM, Vermeij MJA, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2015) Deep down on a Caribbean reef: lower mesophotic depths harbor a specialized coral-endosymbiont community. Sci Rep 5:7652

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandtneris VW, Brandt ME, Glynn PW, Gyory J, Smith TB (2016) Seasonal variability in calorimetric energy content of two Caribbean mesophotic corals. PLoS ONE 11:e0151953

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caribbean Coral Reef Institute [CCRI] (2011) 2011 Mesophotic coral ecosystems cruise. University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez. http://ccri.uprm.edu/media/Mesophotic_Web_page/MCE_Cruise_2011.html. Accessed 09 Jan 2018

  • CCRI (2012) 2012 Mesophotic coral ecosystems cruise. University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez. http://ccri.uprm.edu/media/Mesophotic_Web_page/MCE_Cruise_2012.html. Accessed 09 Jan 2018

  • Chérubin LM, Garavelli L (2016) Eastern Caribbean circulation and island mass effect on St. Croix, US Virgin Islands: a mechanism for relatively consistent recruitment patterns. PLoS ONE 11:e0150409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chérubin LM, Richardson PL (2007) Caribbean current variability and the influence of the Amazon and Orinoco freshwater plumes. Deep-Sea Res I Oceanogr Res Pap 54:1451–1473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chollett I, Mumby PJ, Muller-Karger FE, Hu C (2012) Physical environments of the Caribbean Sea. Limnol Oceanogr 57:1233–1244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corredor JE, Morell JM (2001) Seasonal variation of physical and biogeochemical features in eastern Caribbean Surface Water. J Geophys Res 106:4517–4525

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa BM, Kracker LM, Battista T, Sautter W, Mabrouk A, Edwards K, Taylor C, Ebert E (2017) Benthic habitat maps for the Southeastern Puerto Rican insular shelf NOAA technical memorandum NOS NCCOS 241. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, 59 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • de Goeij JM, van Oevelen D, Vermeij MJA, Osinga R, Middelburg JJ, de Goeij AFPM, Admiraal W (2013) Surviving in a marine desert: the sponge loop retains resources within coral reefs. Science 342:108–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fratantoni DM, Zantopp RJ, Johns WE, Miller JL (1997) Updated bathymetry of the Anegada-Jungfern Passage complex and implications for Atlantic inflow to the abyssal Caribbean Sea. J Mar Res 55:847–860

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia JR, Sabater-Clavell J, Esteves R, Capella J, Carlo M (2011) Characterization of benthic habitats and associated coral reef communities at El Seco, Southeast Vieques. Caribbean Fishery Management Council, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 96 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia JR, Williams SM, Sabater-Clavell J, Esteves R, Carlo M (2014) Mesophotic benthic habitats and associated reef communities at Lang Bank, St. Croix, USVI. Caribbean Fishery Management Council, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 69 p + appendices

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves S (2016) Physical drivers of community structure and growth among mesophotic coral ecosystems surrounding St. Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands. M.Sc. University of the Virgin Islands

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves SH, Holstein DM, Enochs IC, Kolodzeij G, Manzello DP, Brandt ME, Smith TB (2018) Growth rates of Porites astreoides and Orbicella franksi in mesophotic habitats surrounding St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 37:345–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzlieb S, Kadison E, Blondeau J, Nemeth RS (2005) Comparative assessment of coral reef systems located along the insular platform south of St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands and the relative effects of natural and human impacts. Proc 10th Int Coral Reef Symp 4(2):1144–1151

    Google Scholar 

  • Holstein DM, Smith TB, Gyory J, Paris CB (2015) Fertile fathoms: Deep reproductive refugia for threatened shallow corals. Sci Rep 5:12407

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holstein DM, Smith TB, Paris CB (2016) Depth-independent reproduction in the reef coral Porites astreoides from shallow to mesophotic zones. PLoS ONE 11:e0146068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu C, Montgomery ET, Schmitt RW, Muller-Karger FE (2004) The dispersal of the Amazon and Orinoco River water in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean Sea: observation from space and S-PALACE floats. Deep-Sea Res II Top Stud Oceanogr 51:1151–1171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DK (1989) The shelf-edge reefs of Davis and Cane Bays, northwestern St. Croix, U.S.V.I. 12th Caribb Geol Conf Spec Publ 8:167–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DK, Scaturo D (1985) Growth rates of seven species of scleractinian corals from Cane Bay and Salt River, St. Croix, USVI. Bull Mar Sci 36:325–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DK, Burke RB, Gill IP (1986) Styles of reef accretion along a steep, shelf-edge reef, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. J Sediment Petrol 56:848–861

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DK, Burke RB, Gill IP, Ramirez WR, Sherman C (2008) Coral-reef geology: Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. In: Riegl BM, Dodge RE (eds) Coral Reefs of the USA. Springer, New York, pp 263–302

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DK, Gill IP, Burke RB (2013) Holocene reef building on eastern St. Croix, US Virgin Islands: Lang Bank revisited. Coral Reefs 32:653–669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johns EM, Muhling BA, Perez RC, Müller-Karger FE, Melo N, Smith RH, Lamkin JT, Gerard TL, Malca E (2014) Amazon River water in the northeastern Caribbean Sea and its effect on larval reef fish assemblages during April 2009. Fish Oceanogr 23:472–494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kadison E, Nemeth RS, Blondeau J, Smith TB, Calnan JM (2010) Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, with evidence for a spawning aggregation site recovery. Proc Gulf Carib Fish Inst 62:273–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadison E, Brandt M, Nemeth R, Martens J, Blondeau J, Smith T (2017) Abundance of commercially important reef fish indicates different levels of over-exploitation across shelves of the U.S. Virgin Islands. PLoS ONE 12:e0180063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leichter JJ, Genovese SJ (2006) Intermittent upwelling and subsidized growth of the scleractinian coral Madracis mirabilis on the deep fore-reef of Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 316:95–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menza C, Kendall M, Rogers C, Miller J (2007) A deep reef in deep trouble. Cont Shelf Res 27:2224–2230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison JM, Smith OP (1990) Geostrophic transport variability along the Aves Ridge in the Eastern Caribbean Sea during 1985–1986. J Geophys Res Oceans 95:699–710

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA] (2001) Benthic Habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. National Ocean Service

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson WR, Appeldoorn R (1985) Cruise report R/V Seward Johnson. A Submersible survey of the continental slope of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. University of Puerto Rico, 76 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemeth R, Kadison E (2013) Temporal patterns and behavioral characteristics of aggregation formation and spawning in the Bermuda chub (Kyphosus sectatrix). Coral Reefs 32:1067–1076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nemeth RS, Herzlieb S, Kadison ES, Taylor M, Rothenberger JP, Harold S (2004) Coral reef monitoring in St. Croix and St. Thomas, United States Virgin Islands year three final report submitted to Department of Planning and Natural Resources. Department of Planning and Natural Resources, United States Virgin Islands, 79 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemeth RS, Herzlieb S, Blondeau J (2006) Comparison of two seasonal closures for protecting red hind spawning aggregations in the US Virgin Islands. Proc 10th Int Coral Reef Symp Okinawa 4:1306–1313

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemeth RS, Smith TB, Blondeau J, Kadison E, Calnan JM, Gass J (2008) Characterization of deep water reef communities within the marine conservation district, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Submitted to the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, 90 p + appendices

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsen D, LaPlace J (1978) A study of Virgin Islands grouper fishery based on a breeding aggregation. Proc 31st Gulf Caribb Fish Inst 31:130–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Renchen GF, Pittman SJ, Clark R, Caldow C, Gall S, Olsen D, Hill RL (2014) Impact of derelict fish traps in Caribbean waters: an experimental approach. Bull Mar Sci 90:551–563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera J, Prada M, Arsenault J-L, Moody G, Benoit N (2006) Detecting fish aggregations from reef habitats mapped with high resolution side scan sonar imagery. NOAA Prof Pap NMFS 5:88–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers C, Miller J, Muller E, Edmunds P, Nemeth R, Beets J, Friedlander A, Smith T, Boulon R, Jeffrey C, Menza C, Caldow C, Idrisi I, Kojis B, Monaco M, Spitzack T, Gladfelter E, Ogden J, Hillis-Starr Z, Lundgren I, Bane Schill W, Kuffner I, Richardson L, Devine B, Voss J (2008) Coral Reefs of the US Virgin Islands. In: Dodge R, Reigl B (eds) Coral reefs of the world vol 1 coral reefs of the United States, vol 1. Springer, New York, pp 303–373

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowell TJ, Nemeth RS, Schärer MT, Appeldoorn RS (2015) Fish sound production and acoustic telemetry reveal behaviors and spatial patterns associated with spawning aggregations of two Caribbean groupers. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 518:239–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadd JL (1984) Sediment transport and CaCO3 budget on a fringing reef, Cane Bay, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Bull Mar Sci 35:221–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB (2013) United States Virgin Islands’ response to the proposed listing or change in status of seven Caribbean coral species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. University of the Virgin Islands 43

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Holstein DM (2016) Chapter 3.4. The United States Virgin Islands, USA. In: Baker EK, Puglise KA, Harris PT (eds) Mesophotic coral ecosystems—a lifeboat for coral reefs? The United Nations Environment Programme and GRID-Arendal, Nairobi/Arendal, pp 26–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Nemeth RS, Blondeau J, Calnan JM, Kadison E, Herzlieb S (2008) Assessing coral reef health across onshore to offshore stress gradients in the US Virgin Islands. Mar Pollut Bull 56:1983–1991

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Blondeau J, Nemeth RS, Pittman SJ, Calnan JM, Kadison E, Gass J (2010) Benthic structure and cryptic mortality in a Caribbean mesophotic coral reef bank system, the Hind Bank Marine Conservation District, U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 29:289–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Ennis R, Kadison E, Nemeth RS, Henderson LM (2016a) The United States Virgin Islands Territorial Coral Reef Monitoring Program. 2016 annual report. University of the Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, 286 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Gyory J, Brandt ME, Miller WJ, Jossart J, Nemeth RS (2016b) Caribbean mesophotic coral ecosystems are unlikely climate change refugia. Glob Chang Biol 22:2756–2765

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Brandtneris VW, Canals M, Brandt ME, Martens J, Brewer RS, Kadison E, Kammann M, Keller J, Holstein DM (2016c) Potential structuring forces on a shelf edge upper mesophotic coral ecosystem in the US Virgin Islands. Front Mar Sci 3:115

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Holstein DM, Ennis RS (2019) Disturbance in mesophotic coral ecosystems and linkages to conservation and management. In: Loya Y, Puglise KA, Bridge TCL (eds) Mesophotic coral ecosystems. Springer, New York, pp 911–929

    Google Scholar 

  • Steneck R (1983) Quantifying herbivory on coral reefs: just scratching the surface or biting off more than we can chew. In: Reaka ML (ed) The ecology of deep and shallow reefs. NOAA Undersea Research Center, Rockville, pp 103–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchanek TH, Carpenter RC, Witman JD, Harvell CD (1983) Sponges as important space competitors in deep Caribbean coral reef communities. In: Reaka ML (ed) The Ecology of deep and shallow coral reefs. NOAA/NURP, Rockville, pp 55–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobias W (1997) Three year summary report: cooperative fisheries statistics program #SF-42 (NA27FT0301–01). Department of Fish and Wildlife, United States Virgin Islands, 41 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner JA, Babcock RC, Hovey R, Kendrick GA (2017) Deep thinking: a systematic review of mesophotic coral ecosystems. ICES J Mar Sci 74(9):2309–2320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watlington R (2006) An 1867-class tsunami: potential devastation in the US Virgin Islands. In: Mercado-Irizarry A, Liu P (eds) Caribbean tsunami Hazard, vol 1. World Scientific, New Jersey, pp 255–266

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein DK, Smith TB, Klaus JS (2014) Mesophotic bioerosion: variability and structural impact on U.S. Virgin Island deep reefs. Geomorphology 222:14–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein DK, Sharifi A, Klaus JS, Smith TB, Giri SJ, Helmle KP (2016) Coral growth, bioerosion, and secondary accretion of living orbicellid corals from mesophotic reefs in the US Virgin Islands. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 559:45–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Marine and Environmental Studies, University of the Virgin Islands, Saint Thomas, USVI, USA

    Tyler B. Smith, Marilyn E. Brandt, Viktor W. Brandtneris, Rosmin S. Ennis, Sarah H. Groves, Sennai Habtes, Daniel M. Holstein, Elizabeth Kadison & Richard S. Nemeth

  2. Marine Spatial Ecology Division, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, NOAA National Ocean Service, Beaufort, NC, USA

    Sarah H. Groves

  3. Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, College of the Coast and the Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA

    Daniel M. Holstein

Authors
  1. Tyler B. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marilyn E. Brandt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Viktor W. Brandtneris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rosmin S. Ennis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sarah H. Groves
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sennai Habtes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Daniel M. Holstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Elizabeth Kadison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Richard S. Nemeth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tyler B. Smith .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Yossi Loya

  2. National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Silver Spring, MD, USA

    Kimberly A. Puglise

  3. Biodiversity and Geosciences Program, Museum of Tropical Queensland, Queensland Museum Network, Townsville, QLD, Australia

    Tom C.L. Bridge

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Smith, T.B. et al. (2019). The United States Virgin Islands. In: Loya, Y., Puglise, K., Bridge, T. (eds) Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems. Coral Reefs of the World, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92735-0_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation