Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Ecomorphology of Cyclorrhaphan Larvae (Diptera) pp 175–209Cite as

Phytophagy and Mycophagy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 326 Accesses

Part of the book series: Zoological Monographs ((ZM,volume 4))

Abstract

Phytophages and mycophages obtain nourishment from live plant and fungal tissue respectively and are the subject of this chapter. Compared to the low-viscosity food utilised by most saprophages, the food of phytophages and mycophages is typically firmer and harder. To imbibe firm to hard food, phytophagous and mycophagous larvae must fragment tissue prior to sucking it up and the various morphologies and features involved are identified and compared and contrasted. The roles of these features both as indicators of feeding mode and as a means of understanding phytophagy and mycophagy are evaluated. Facultative phytophages and mycophages are a route to obligate phytophagy and mycophagy. Facultative taxa possess a complex variety of relationships with microbes that help soften and decay tissue prior to feeding, and larvae supplement their diets by feeding on associated microbes. Despite certain common features in morphology and movement, feeding and locomotor mechanisms are diverse in phytophages and mycophages and such diversity correlates to variable food qualities and conditions of access at development sites.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aderkas von P, Peterson BV (1987) Chirosia betuleti (Ringdahl) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) a gall-former on the Ostrich fern, Matteuccia struthiopteris, with notes on other insect-fern associates. Proc Entomol Soc Wash 89:532–547

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer G (1986) Life-history strategy of Rhagoletis alternata (Diptera: Trypetidae), a fruit fly operating in a ‘non-interactive’ system. J Anim Ecol 55:785–794

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benavent-Corai J, Martinez M, Peydró R (2005) Catalogue of the host-plants of the world Agromyzidae (Diptera). Bolletino Di Zoologia Agraria e Di Bachicoltura (Suppl) 37:1–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Bland KP, Horsfield D (2016) Distribution and biology of Palloptera scutellata (Macquart) (Diptera, Pallopteridae) in south-east Scotland. Dipt Digest 23:51–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke HE (1905) Black check in western hemlock, vol 61. USDA, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, pp 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron AE (1914) A contribution to a knowledge of the Belladonna leaf-miner, Pegomyia hyoscyami, Panz., its life history and biology. Ann Appl Biol 1:43–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler PJ (1975) Observations on the plant of the Psilidae (Diptera). Entomol Rec J Var 87:13–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler PJ (1991) Attraction of Palloptera usta Meigen (Diptera: Pallopteridae) to recently cut conifer wood and other notes on Pallopteridae. Br J Entomol Nat Hist 4:85–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler PJ (2001) The flat-footed flies (Diptera: Opetiidae and Platypezidae) of Europe. Fauna Entomol Scand 36:1–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler PJ (2010) Associations with fungi and mycetozoa. In: Chandler PJ (ed) A Dipterist’s handbook, vol 15, 2nd edn. The Amateur Entomologists’ Society, Orpington, pp 417–441

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler PJ (2016) Flat-footed fly recording scheme. Biol Rec Centre Newsl 1:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Chinery M (2011) Britain’s plant galls: a photographic guide. WildGuides

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowson R (1981) The biology of the Coleoptera. Academic Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Currie GA (1937) Galls on eucalyptus trees. A new type of association between flies and nematodes. Proc Linn Soc NSW 62:147–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Dempewolf M (2001) Larvalmorphologie und Phylogenie der Agromyzidae (Diptera). Ph.D thesis. University of Bielefeld, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrar P (1979) The immature stages of dung-breeding muscoid flies in Australia, with notes on the species and keys to larvae and puparia. Aust J Zool Suppl Ser 27:1–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrar P (1987) A guide to the breeding habits and immature stages of Diptera Cyclorrhapha. Entomon 8:1–907

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfray HCJ (1986) Clutch size in a leaf-mining fly (Pegomya nigritarsis: Anthomyiidae). Ecol Entomol 11:75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Headrick DH, Goeden RD (1990) Description of the immature stages of Paracantha gentilis Hering (Diptera: Tephritidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 83:220–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Headrick DH, Goeden RD (1993) Life history and description of immature stages of Aciurina thoracica Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Baccharis sarothroides in southern California. Ann Entomol Soc Am 86:68–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hellrigl K (1992) Die Fichtenharzfliege Cheilosia morio Zett. (Dipt. Syrphidae) als physiologischer Schädling an Fichten in Sudtirol. Anz Schädl Pflanzen Umwelt 65:33–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennig W (1952) Die Larvenformen der Dipteren, vol 3. Akademie Verlag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Hering EM (1951) Biology of the leafminers. Dr W Junk, The Hague

    Google Scholar 

  • Imada Y, Kato M (2016) Bryophyte-feeders in a basal brachyceran lineage (Diptera: Rhagionidae: Spaniinae): adult oviposition behavior and changes in the larval mouthpart morphology accompanied with the diet shifts. PLoS One 11(11):e0165808. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165808

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kadowacka K (2010) Species coexistence patterns in a mycophagous insect community inhabiting the wood-decaying bracket fungus Cryptoporus volvatus (Polyporaceae: Basidiomycota). Eur J Entomol 107:89–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keilin D (1912) Structure du pharynx en fonction du regime chez les larves des Diptères cyclorhaphes. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l’académie Paris, vol 155, pp 1548–1550

    Google Scholar 

  • Keilin D (1915) Recherches sur les larves de Dipteres Cyclorrhaphes. Bull Sci Fr Bel 49:15–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Keilin D, Tate P (1930) On certain semi-carnivorous anthomyid larvae. Parasitology (Cam) 22:168–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keilin D, Tate P (1943) The larval stages of the celery fly (Acidia heraclei L.) and of the braconid Adelura apii (Curtis) with notes upon an associated parasitic yeast-like fungus. Parasitology (Cam) 35:27–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessel EL (1961) The immature stages of Callomyia, with description of a new species of this genus (Diptera: Platypezidae). Occ Pap Calif Acad Sci 30:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Krivosheina NP (2008) Macromycete fruit bodies as a habitat for dipterans (Insecta, Diptera). Entomol Rev 88:778–792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn T, Novotny V, Basset Y (2005) Insects on plants: diversity of herbivore assemblages revisited. Annu Rev Evol Syst 36:597–620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin MM (1979) Biochemical implications of insect mycophagy. Biol Rev 54:1–21

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morge G (1956) Der Morphologie und Lebensweise der bisher unbekannten Larven von Palloptera usta Meigen, Palloptera ustulata Fallén und Stegana coleoptrata Scopoli (Diptera). Beitr Entomol 6:124–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Narchuk EP (1985) Adaptations of cyclorrhaphan larvae (Diptera) for the inhabitation of living plants. In: Skarlato OA (ed) Systematics of Diptera (Insecta): ecological and morphological principles. Oxonian Press, New Delhi, pp 97–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Papp L (1979) Some fungivorous species of Sphaeroceridae and Drosophilidae (Diptera) from Karelia, USSR. Folia Entomol Hung 32:189–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Papp L (1994) Morphology of third instar larva and puparium of three heleomyzid species (Diptera: Heleomyzidae). Acta Zool Acad Sci Hung 40:219–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Prado PI, Lewinsohn TM, Almeida AM, Norrbom AL, Buys BD, Macedo AC, Lopes MB (2002) The fauna of Tephritidae (Diptera) from capitula of Asteraceae in Brazil. Proc Entomol Soc Wash 104:1007–1028

    Google Scholar 

  • Reader T (2003) Strong interactions between species of phytophagous fly: a case of intraguild kleptoparasitism. Oikos 103:101–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redfern M, Shirley P, Bloxham M (2011) British plant galls: identification of galls on plants and fungi. AIDGAP Guides, Field Studies Council

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricarte A, Marcos-García MA, Rotheray GE (2008) The early stages and life histories of three Eumerus and two Merodon species (Diptera: syrphidae) from the Mediterranean region. Entomol Fenn 19:129–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts MJ (1971) The structure of the mouthparts of some calypterate dipteran larvae in relation to their feeding habits. Acta Zool 52:171–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (1986) Colour, shape and defence in aphidophagous syrphid larvae (Diptera). Zool J Linnean Soc 88:201–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (1988a) Larval morphology and feeding patterns of four Cheilosia species (Diptera: Syrphidae) associated with Cirsium palustre L. Scopoli (Compositae) in Scotland. J Nat Hist 22:17–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (1988b) Morphology and feeding behaviour of the leaf-mining larva of Cheilosia semifasciata (Diptera: Syrphidae). J Nat Hist 22:865–873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (1990) The relationship between feeding mode and morphology in Cheilosia larvae (Diptera, Syrphidae). J Nat Hist 24:7–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (1991) Larval stages of 17 rare and poorly known British hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae). J Nat Hist 25:945–969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (2011) The puparia of Chyromya femorellum (Fallén) (Chyromyidae), Camilla atrimana Strobl and Camilla fuscipes Collin (Camillidae) (Diptera) reared from bird and mammal nests and burrows. Dipt Digest 18:81–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (2014) Development sites, feeding modes and early stages of seven European Palloptera species (Diptera, Pallopteridae). Zootaxa 3900:50–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE (2016) Improving knowledge of the cyclorrhaphan larva (Diptera). J Nat Hist 50:2169–2198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Bland KP (2003) The stem-living larva of Platyparea discoidea (Fabricius) (Diptera, Tephritidae). Dipt Digest 10:7–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Gilbert F (2011) The natural history of hoverflies. Forrest Text, Cardigan

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Hewitt S (2015) Development site, feeding mode and early stages of Palloptera scutellata (Macquart) (Diptera, Pallopteridae). Dipt Digest 22:157–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Horsfield D (2013) Development sites and early stages of eleven species of Clusiidae (Diptera) occurring in Europe. Zootaxa 3619:401–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Lyszkowski R (2015) Diverse mechanisms of feeding and movement in Cyclorrhaphan larvae (Diptera). J Nat Hist 49:2139–2211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheray GE, Chandler PJ, Gilbert F (2004) Final stage larvae and puparia of Platypezidae (Diptera). Insect Syst Evol 35:79–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryzhkova YV (1962) Phytopathogenic symbionts of Oscinella frit. L. and O. pusillanimous Mg. (Diptera, Chloropidae) and their practical use. Entomol Rev 41:788–795

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid U (1999) Die Larve von Cheilosia impressa (Diptera, Syrphidae). Volucella 4:113–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid U (2000) Cheilosia rhodiolae spec. nov. – taxonomie und ökologie einer alpinen schwebfliege (Diptera, Syrphidae) aus der Cheilosia fasciata-gruppe. Volucella 5:15–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Semelbauer M, Kozánek M. (2012) Morphology of preimaginal stages of Lauxania and Calliopum (Diptera: lauxaniidae). Zootaxa 3346:1–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw MR, Askew RR (2010) Hymenopterous parasitoids of Diptera. In: Chandler P (ed) A Dipterist’s handbook, vol 15, 2nd edn. Amateur Entomologist’s Society, Hanworth, pp 347–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Shorthouse JD, Rohfritsch O (eds) (1992) Biology of insect-induced galls. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore P (1985) The biology of the Muscidae of the world. Junk, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith KVG (1989) An introduction to the immature stages of British Flies. Handbk Ident Br Insects 10:1–280

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Speight MCD (1986) Portevinia maculata (Fal.): last instar larva and puparium, with notes on the relationship between this hoverfly and its host-plant, Allium ursinium (Diptera, Syrphidae). Nouv Rev Entomol 3:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer KA (1990) Host specialization in the world Agromyzidae (Diptera). Kluwer, Dordrecht

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stone GN, Schönrogge K (2003) The adaptive significance of insect gall morphology. Trends Ecol Evol 18:512–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strong DR, Lawton JH, Southwood R (1984) Insects on plants, community patterns and mechanisms. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs AE (1969) Observations on Palloptera scutellata Mcq. in Berkshire and Surrey and a discussion on the larval habits of Pallopteridae (Dipt.). Entomol Mon Mag 104:157–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuke J-H (2000) Phylogenetische Rekonstruktion der Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen innerhalb der Gattung Cheilosia Meigen, 1822 anhand der Larvenstadien (Diptera: Syrphidae). Studia Dipterol Suppl 8:1–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Trifourkis S (1977) The bionomics and taxonomy of the larval Mycetophilidae and other fungicolous Diptera. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of London

    Google Scholar 

  • Varley GC (1937) The life history of some trypetid flies, with descriptions of the early stages (Diptera). Trans R Entomol Soc Lond A 12:109–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward LK, Spalding DF (1993) Phytophagous British insects and mites and their food-plant families: total numbers and polyphagy. Biol J Linn Soc 49:257–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiegmann BM, Trautwein MD, Winkler IS, Barra NB, Kima J-W, Lambkin C, Berton MA, Cassela BK, Bayless KM, Heimberg AM, Wheeler BM, Petersone KJ, Pape T, Sinclair BJ, Skevington JH, Blagoderov V, Caravask J, Narayanan Kutty SN, Schmidt-Ott U, Kampmeier GE, Thompson FC, Grimaldi DA, Beckenbach AT, Courtney GM, Friedrich M, Meier R, Yeates DK (2011) Episodic radiations in the fly tree of life. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:5690–5695

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wirth WW (1952) Two new spider egg predators from the Hawaiian Islands (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Proc Hawaii Entomol Soc 14:415–417

    Google Scholar 

  • White IM, Elson-Harris MM (1992) Fruit flies of economic significance: their identification and bionomics. CAB Int ernational, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ylioja T, Saranpää P, Roininen H, Rousi M (1998) Larval tunnels of Phytobia betulae (Diptera: Agromyzidae) in birch wood. J Econ Entomol 4:185–181

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK

    Graham E. Rotheray

Authors
  1. Graham E. Rotheray
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Rotheray, G.E. (2019). Phytophagy and Mycophagy. In: Ecomorphology of Cyclorrhaphan Larvae (Diptera). Zoological Monographs, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92546-2_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation