Abstract
This chapter examines the various scholarly perspectives concerning definitions, manifestations, extent, causes, and critiques of Islamophobia in the West. Since the turn of the century, Islamophobia has been widely discussed in regards to Muslims in the West and has attracted considerable concern from governments in the Muslim World and the West as well as transnational organisations. The concept has attracted a large amount of academic research, particularly in respect to the manifestations and impacts of Islamophobia. It has also attracted criticism from those who claim that the use of the term inhibits legitimate criticism of “Islam”. The chapter argues that what tends to be classified as Islamophobia includes prejudice and discrimination of Muslims but also that the underlying fear and concern is generally not the religion per se but political Islam that developed in the mid-twentieth century in the broader Muslim world and began to make its mark on Muslim communities in the West since the 1980s and 1990s.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abbas, Tahir. 2004. After 9/11: British South Asian Muslims, Islamophobia, Multiculturalism, and the State. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21 (3): 26–38.
Allen, Chris. 2007. The ‘First’ Decade of Islamophobia: 10 Years of the Runnymede Trust Report ‘Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All.’ Retrieved from http://www.annalindhfoundation.org/sites/annalindh.org/files/documents/publication/decade_of_islamophobia.pdf
———. 2010. Islamophobia. Burlington: Ashgate.
Bayraklı, E., and F. Hafez, eds. 2016. European Islamophobia Report 2015. Ankara: Seta.
Bleich, Erik. 2011. What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept. American Behavioral Scientist 55 (12): 1581–1600.
Brubaker, Rogers. 2013. Categories of Analysis and Categories of Practice: A Note on the Study of Muslims in European Countries of Immigration. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36 (1): 1–8.
Cesari, Jocelyne. 2006. Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia Is More a Predicament than an Explanation. Retrieved from http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf
———. 2011. Islamophobia in the West: A Comparison Between Europe and the United States. In Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 21–46. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ciftci, Sabri. 2012. Islamophobia and Threat Perceptions: Explaining Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 32 (3): 293–309.
Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia [CBMI]. 1997. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. Retrieved from http://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/17/74.html
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). 2017. Civil Rights Report 2017: The Empowerment of Hate. Retrieved from https://cairky.com/images/documents/2017%20Empowerment%20of%20Fear.pdf
Dekker, Henk, and Jolanda van der Noll. 2011. Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism and Their Explanations. Retrieved from https://ecpr.eu/filestore/paperproposal/515dd69b-e296-4f9e-914a-9be76a2fb390.pdf
Donner, F.M. 2012. Muhammad and the Believers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dunn, K.M., N. Klocker, and T. Salabay. 2007. Contemporary Racism and Islamophobia in Australia: Racializing Religion. Ethnicities 7 (4): 564–589.
Dunn, Kevin, Rosalie Atie, and Virginia Mapedzahama. 2016. Ordinary Cosmopolitans: Sydney Muslims’ Attitudes to Diversity. Australian Geographer 47 (3): 281–294.
El-Fadl, Khaled Abou. 2016. Fatwa on Permissibility of Not Wearing hijab, Scholar of the House, online: http://www.scholarofthehouse.org/drabelfafaon.html
El-Wakil, A. 2016. The Prophet’s Treaty with the Christians of Najran: An Analytical Study to Determine the Authenticity of the Covenants. Journal of Islamic Studies 27 (3): 273–354.
Essential Report. 2016. Ban on Muslim Immigration, (Essential Research, 21 September 2016), accessed October 1 2016, http://www.essentialvision.com.au/ban-on-muslim-immigration
Esposito, John L., and Ibrahim Kalin. 2011. Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). 2002. Summary Report on Islamophobia in the EU After 11 September 2001. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/199-Synthesis-report_en.pdf
———. 2003. The Fight Against Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities Together. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/178-Report-RT3-en.pdf
———. 2006. Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/156-Manifestations_EN.pdf
Goodwin, M., Raines, T. and Cutts, D. 2017. What do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration. Chatham House.
Gottschalk, P., and G. Greenberg. 2007. Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hassan, R., and Martin, B. 2015. Islamophobia, Social Distance and Fear of Terrorism in Australia. Retrieved from http://www.unisa.edu.au/Global/EASS/MnM/Publications/Islamophobia_report.pdf
Hodgson, Marshall G.S. 1993. Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam and World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huntington, S.P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Husain, Zohair, and David M. Rosenbaum. 2004. Perceiving Islam: The Causes and Consequences of Islamophobia in the Western Media. In Religious Fundamentalism in the Contemporary World: Critical Social and Political Issues, ed. Santosh C. Saha, 171–206. Oxford: Lexington Books.
Imhoff, Roland, and Julia Recker. 2012. Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a New Scale to Measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique. Political Psychology 33 (6): 811–824.
Iner, D. (ed.) 2017. Islamophobia in Australia 2014–1016. Deakin University http://www.deakin.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/1075164/Islamophobia.pdf
Kumar, Deepa. 2010. Framing Islam: The Resurgence of Orientalism During the Bush II era. Journal of Communication Inquiry 34 (3): 254–277.
Lee, Sherman A., Jeffrey A. Gibbons, John M. Thompson, and Hussam S. Timani. 2009. The Islamophobia Scale: Instrument Development and Initial Validation. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 19 (2): 92–105.
Lewis, B. 1990. The Roots of Muslim Rage. The Atlantic Monthly 266 (3): 47–60.
Malik, Kenan. 2005a. The Islamophobia Myth. Prospect, February 20. Retrieved from http://www.kenanmalik.com/essays/prospect_islamophobia.html
———. 2005b. What Hate? The Guardian, January 7. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/07/religion.islam
———. 2009. From Fatwa to Jihad: The Rushdie Affair and Its Legacy. London: Atlantic.
Mahood, Samantha, and Halim Rane. 2017. Islamist Narratives in ISIS Recruitment Propaganda. The Journal of International Communication 23 (1): 15–35.
Manning, P.C. 2006. Us and Them: A Journalist’s Investigation of Media, Muslims and the Middle East. London: Random House.
Mason, Victoria, and Scott Poynting. 2007. The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim Racism in the UK and Australia Before 11September 2001. Journal of Sociology 43 (1): 61–86.
Maussen, Marcel. 2006. Anti-Muslim Sentiments and Mobilization in the Netherlands: Discourse, Policies and Violence. In Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia Is More a Predicament than an Explanation, ed. Jocelyne Cesari, 100–138. Retrieved from http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf
Meer, Nasar. 2013. Racialization and Religion: Race: Culture and Difference in the Study of Antisemitism and Islamophobia. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36 (3): 385–398.
———. 2014. Islamophobia and Postcolonialism: Continuity, Orientalism and Muslim Consciousness. Patterns of Prejudice 48 (5): 500–515.
Meer, Nasar, and Tariq Modood. 2009. Refutations of racism in the ‘Muslim question’. Patterns of Prejudice 43 (3–4): 335–354.
Miller, Charles. 2017. Australia’s Anti-Islam Right in Their Own Words: Text as Data Analysis of Social Media Content. Australian Journal of Political Science 52 (3): 383–401.
Morrow, J. A. 2013. The Covenants of the Prophet Muhammad with the Christians of the World. Sophia Perennis.
Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin. 2011. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation After 9/11. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Mozaffari, M. 2007. What is Islamism? History and Definition of a Concept. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8 (1): 17–33.
Nacos, Brigitte L., and Oscar Torres-Reyna. 2007. Fueling Our Fears: Stereotyping, Media Coverage, and Public Opinion of Muslim Americans. Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers.
Norris, Pippa, Montague Kern, and Marion R. Just, eds. 2003. Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government, and the Public. New York: Routledge.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation [OIC]. 2008. First OIC Observatory Report on Islamophobia: May 2007 to May 2008. Retrieved from http://ww1.oic-oci.org/uploads/file/Islamphobia/islamphobia_rep_may_07_08.pdf
———. 2012. Fifth OIC Observatory Report on Islamophobia: May 2011 to September 2012. Retrieved from http://ww1.oic-oci.org/uploads/file/islamphobia/reports/english/islamphobiareport-2012.pdf
———. 2017. Tenth OIC Observatory Report on Islamophobia: October 2016 to May 2017.
Papacharissi, Zizi, and Maria de Fatima Oliveira. 2008. News Frames Terrorism: A Comparative Analysis of Frames Employed in Terrorism Coverage in US and UK Newspapers. The International Journal of Press/Politics 13 (1): 52–74.
Pew Research Center. 2016. Negative Views of Minorities, Refugees Common in EU. Retrieved from http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/07/11/negative-views-of-minorities-refugees-common-in-eu/
Poole, Elizabeth. 2002. Reporting Islam: Media Representations and British Muslims. London: I.B. Tauris.
Powell, Kimberly A. 2011. Framing Islam: An Analysis of U.S. Media Coverage of Terrorism Since 9/11. Communication Studies 62 (1): 90–112.
Rana, Junaid. 2007. The Story of Islamophobia. A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society 9 (2): 148–161.
Rane, H., J. Ewart, and J. Martinkus. 2014. Media Framing of the Muslim World: Conflicts, Crises and Contexts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rane, Halim. 2010. Media Content and Intercommunity Relations. In Islam and the Australian News Media, ed. H. Rane, J. Ewart, and M. Abdalla, 104–122. Carlton: Melbourne University Press.
Richardson, Robin. 2013. Islamophobia or Anti-Muslim Racism – Or What? Concepts and Terms Revisited. Retrieved from http://www.insted.co.uk/anti-muslim-racism.pdf
Ryan, Michael. 2004. Framing the War Against Terrorism: US Newspaper Editorials and Military Action in Afghanistan. Gazette: The International Journal for Communication Studies 66 (5): 363–382.
Said, Edward W. 1978. Orientalism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
———. 1981. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Vintage.
Sajid, Abdullah. 2005. Islamophobia: A New Word for an Old Fear. Retrieved from http://www.osce.org/files/documents/2/a/15618.pdf
Salvatore, Armando. 2010. Repositioning ‘Islamdom’: The Culture—Power Syndrome within a Transcivilizational Ecumene. European Journal of Social Theory 13 (1): 99–115.
Sayyid, S. 2011. Racism and Islamophobia. Retrieved from http://www.unisa.edu.au/Documents/EASS/MnM/commentaries/sayyid-racism-islamophobia.pdf
———. 2014. A Measure of Islamophobia. Islamophobia Studies Journal 2 (1): 10–25.
Semati, Mehdi. 2010. Islamophobia, Culture and Race in the Age of Empire. Cultural Studies 24 (2): 256–275.
Steuter, Erin, and Deborah Wills. 2009. Discourses of Dehumanization: Enemy Construction and Canadian Media Complicity in the Framing of the War on Terror. Global Media Journal 2 (2): 7–24.
Stolz, J. 2005. Explaining Islamophobia. A Test of Four Theories Based on the Case of a Swiss City. Swiss Journal of Sociology 31 (3): 547–566.
Tibi, Bassam. 2012. Islam and Islamism. New Haven/London: Yale University Press.
Tolan, J.V. 2002. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. New York: Columbia University Press.
United National Human Rights Council (UNHRC). 2007. A/HRC/6/6: Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia AND Related Forms of Intolerance: Follow-up to and Implementation of the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action. Retrieved from http://undocs.org/A/68/454
Zúquete, Jose Pedro. 2008. The European Extreme-Right and Islam: New Directions? Journal of Political Ideologies 13 (3): 321–344.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Duderija, A., Rane, H. (2019). Islamophobia. In: Islam and Muslims in the West. New Directions in Islam. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92510-3_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92510-3_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-92509-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-92510-3
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)