Between Diplomacy and Revolution (1963–1966)

Grilli, Matteo

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91325-4_6

Between Diplomacy and Revolution (1963–1966)

Matteo Grilli⁴

Chapter
First Online: 07 August 2018

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Part of the book series: African Histories and Modernities ((AHAM))

Abstract

This chapter outlines the period between 1963 and 1966, when Ghana’s Pan-African policy reached its peak of radicalism. This, in turn, caused a harsh confrontation between Ghana and other independent African states backed by Western powers. The chapter details the BAA’s work with liberation movements involved in armed struggle and those who were not. As documents and oral testimonies demonstrate, despite its shortcomings, the Bureau succeeded in spreading Nkrumah’s ideology on the continent. However, Nkrumah did not succeed in relaunching the project for a political union. Many in Africa, including several liberation movements, proved lukewarm to Nkrumah’s accelerated plans towards African unity. Nevertheless, at the time of the coup (February 1966), the Ghanaian president still had a significant following amongst African freedom fighters.

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Notes

1.
Quarm, Diplomatic Servant, p. 29.
2.
Adamafio , By Nkrumah’s side, p. 124, and Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, pp. 196–199.
3.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 266.
4.
“All Africans must answer to the call of Osagyefo against colonialism”, Evening News, 21 August 1962.
5.
GPRL, uncatalogued file, Speeches delivered on the occasion of the freedom fighters’ demonstration at Accra on 17 August 1962.
6.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
7.
See GPRL, BAA/RLAA/424, Letter from BCP representatives in Ghana to Barden, 31 October 1962.
8.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/424, Letters from Barden to the main representatives of the party and the state, 12 August 1962.
9.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 267. Thompson mistakenly refers to the Union for Togo Liberation as Togo’s “United Front”.
10.
AHD, PAA-908, Circular UL 78, 3 December 1962.
11.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 305 and 307.
12.
Zdenek Červenka, The Organization of African Unity and its Charter (London: C. Hurst & Company, 1968), p. 2.
13.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 307.
14.
Ibid., p. 307.
15.
Ibid., pp. 202–203.
16.
Kwame Nkrumah, “The Theory of African Revolutionary Struggle”, Bulletin on African Affairs 2, no. 124, 22 November 1962. A copy of the article can be found in GPRL, BAA/RLAA/2.
17.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and 6 September 2012.
18.
Quaison-Sackey, Africa Unbound, pp. 66, 72 and 77–78; Legum, Pan-Africanism, pp. 42–45 and 162–163; Bakpetu Thompson, Africa and Unity, pp. 126–140.
19.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 315–316.
20.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and 6 September 2012.
21.
See, for instance, “Africa! The Clarion Call”, Voice of Africa, 3, 2–4, 1963, pp. 2–14 and 35; A.K. Barden, “The evolution of African unity”, Voice of Africa, 3, 2–4, 1963, pp. 20–32; “Towards Continental Unity”, Voice of Africa, 3, 5–7, 1963, pp. 1–2.
22.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 305.
23.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/429, “Speech by Mr. A.K. Barden, director of Bureau of African Affairs on the 5th Anniversary of Africa Freedom Day, 15th April 1963”. See also A.K. Barden, “Why African Freedom Day”, Voice of Africa, 3, 2–4, 1963, pp. 37–38.
24.
See Review of “Awakening Africa” in Voice of Africa, 3, 1, 1963, p. 40. For a quotation from “Awakening Africa” see “The evolution of African unity”, Voice of Africa, 3, 2–4, 1963, pp. 20–21.
25.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 317.
26.
Červenka quoted in Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 317.
27.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BG-Liberia, Letter from Barden to T. Doe, 12 December 1962.
28.
Quotation of Nkrumah’s proposal can be found in GPRL, BAA/RLAA/437, Lecture on Nkrumaism by Comrade Gaituah, 11 October 1963.
29.
Ibid.
30.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 318.
31.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and Bosumtwi-Sam , 19 July 2012.
32.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and 6 September 2012.
33.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 319.
34.
Červenka, The Organization of African Unity, p. 9.
35.
Ibid., p. 9.
36.
See Immanuel Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, an Analysis of a Contemporary Social Movement (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 111.
37.
Červenka, The Organization of African Unity, pp. 139–169.
38.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 327. Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, 186. See Basner’s quotation in Biney, “Ghana’s Contribution”, p. 91.
39.
Armah , Peace without Power, p. 29.
40.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 322.
41.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/430, “Speech by A.K. Barden, Chairman/Director of Bureau of African Affairs to the Meeting of African Ambassadors”, undated.
42.
Oginga Odinga, Not Yet Uhuru, p. 185.
43.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
44.
TNA, FO 1110/1692, report “The Influence of Ghana in East Africa”, Stather Hunt (British High Commissioner in Uganda) to the Commonwealth Relations Office, 12 September 1963.
45.
Kloman Jr., African Unification Movements, pp. 398–400.
46.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and Bosumtwi-Sam , 19 July 2012.
47.
Armah , Peace without Power, p. 29.
48.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and Bosumtwi-Sam , 19 July 2012.
49.
Interviews with Bosumtwi-Sam , 19 July 2012 and 4 September 2012.
50.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 331.
51.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012.
52.
TNA, FO 1110/1692, report “The Influence of Ghana in East Africa”, Stather Hunt (British High Commissioner in Uganda) to the Commonwealth Relations Office, 12 September 1963.
53.
Ibid.
54.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/402, Letter from Ofori-Bah to Barden, 2 October 1963.
55.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012.
56.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/402, Letter from Ofori-Bah to Barden, 2 October 1963.
57.
“Africa periscope: Kenya’s Imperialist Paper Sunday Post”, Voice of Africa, 3, 12, 1963, pp. 29–32 and 36.
58.
“East Africa and Dr. Nkrumah”, Voice of Africa, 4, 1, 1964, pp. 38–40.
59.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 4 September 2012.
60.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 4 September 2012.
61.
Agyeman, Nkrumah’s Ghana and East Africa, p. 63.
62.
See Michael Wolfers, Politics in the Organization of African Unity (London: Methuen, 1976), p. 167.
63.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 328.
64.
Kwame Nkrumah, “Since Addis Ababa”, Voice of Africa, 3, 11, 1963, pp. 39–40.
65.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/430, “New Year Message” by A.K. Barden, undated.
66.
Dumor, Ghana, OAU and Southern Africa, pp. 168–169.
67.
“Cabral Leaves”, Ghanaian Times, 19 August 1963.
68.
“Bureau: United Action against Salazar Justified”, Ghanaian Times, 16 August 1963.
69.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/430, “Press Release on the Speech of Mr. Salazar”, Amilcar Cabral, undated.
70.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/378, Letter from Neto to Nkrumah, 30 November 1963.
71.
Mazarire, “ZANU’s External Networks”, p. 88.
72.
Ibid., p. 87; Ndabaningi Sithole, African Nationalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).
73.
Martin Meredith, Robert Mugabe: Power, Plunder and Tyranny in Zimbabwe (Jeppestown: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2002), pp. 23–26. On Mugabe’s correspondence with his Ghanaian wife, see Ahlman, “Road to Ghana”.
74.
According to South African security forces, in 1963: “the committee has come up with some excuse every time the PAC representatives asked for money”, in SADOD/AMI/Group 3, Box 360, File 148/5/1/1, Vol 70 J, PAC Finance, PAC Bedrywighede, 3 January 196[4].
75.
Ibid.
76.
Gunther, “The National Committee of Liberation”, p. 220.
77.
On the history of Ghana’s involvement in the Torquil affair see Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the Armed Struggle”, pp. 73–74.
78.
Interviews with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012 and 4 September 2012.
79.
As underlined by Mensah, the Bureau was not always successful in influencing the appointments of diplomats. See Mensah, “The Bureau of African Affairs”, 128.
80.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 21 April 1964.
81.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah 1 October 1964 and the attached “Report on Northern Rhodesia”, submitted by a BAA “activist”.
82.
Zdenek Červenka, The Unfinished Quest for Unity: Africa and the OAU (London: Friedmann, 1977), p. 53.
83.
Ibid.
84.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 352–353.
85.
Nkrumah, “Proposals for a Union Government”, in Nkrumah, Revolutionary Path, p. 280.
86.
Červenka, The Unfinished Quest for Unity, pp. 53–54.
87.
Ibid., pp. 53–54.
88.
Ibid., p. 55.
89.
Document called “Freedom Fighters” and retrieved among Nkrumah’s papers by the NLC in 1966. Published in NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 54.
90.
Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 21 August 1964, originally in the BAA archive and reproduced in NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 7.
91.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, pp. 17–18. On the military training camps in Ghana see Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the Armed Struggle”.
92.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/359, Letter from Wilson (Ghana’s Embassy Peking) to Barden, 3 November 1964.
93.
On Che Guevara in Ghana see Dennis Laumann, “Che Guevara’s Visit to Ghana”, Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, New Series, 9, 2005, pp. 61–74; For Guevara’s writing on guerrilla warfare kept by the Bureau, see GPRL, BAA/RLAA/971, “Guerrilla Warfare”. In February 1966, the NLC found a copy of Nkrumah’s draft book on guerrilla warfare modelled on Mao and Guevara’s military manuals. This would later be developed into the Handbook of Revolutionary Warfare. See NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 42 and NLC, Nkrumah’s Deception, p. 14; Kwame Nkrumah, Handbook of Revolutionary Warfare (New York: International Publishers, 1969).
94.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 19. See Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the Armed Struggle”, p. 77.
95.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
96.
The name of the magazine was a clear reference to Lenin’s newspaper Iskra, published in the early 1900s. In 1964 a magazine called Pan-Africanist Review was also produced by the BAA.
97.
VVAA, Some Essential Features of Nkrumaism: A Compilation of Articles from “The Spark” (Accra: The Spark Publications, 1964).
98.
Nkrumah, Consciencism; See also Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, pp. 81–83.
99.
See Nkrumah, Consciencism, p. 68. Although not specified in the book, this concept is clearly based on the thought of Blyden. See also Ali Mazrui, Nkrumah’s Legacy and Africa’s Triple Heritage: Between Globalization and Counter Terrorism (Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 2004).
100.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 293.
101.
Biney, The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah, p. 125.
102.
See GPRL, BAA/RLAA/437 for all the texts of the lectures quoted above. This programme refers to a course which took place between October and November 1963.
103.
Nkrumah, Consciencism, p. 100.
104.
Ibid., pp. 100–101.
105.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/437, “Why one-party State”, Lecture to Mfantsipim School, Cape Coast, by A.K. Gaituah, 24 January 1964.
106.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 4 September 2012.
107.
“Ghana’s Constitutional Changes – the One Party State”, Voice of Africa, 4, 2, 1964, pp. 17–23 and Kwame Nkrumah, “What is to be done?”, Voice of Africa, 4, 2, 1964, pp. 23–24 and 27.
108.
Aloysius K. Barden, “Evolution of Ghanaian Society”, Voice of Africa, 4, 2, 1964, pp. 25–27.
109.
W.M. Sulemana-Sibidow, ed., The African Journalist (Winneba: Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute, 1964), p. 1.
110.
Samuel G. Ikoku , “Propaganda Through Radio and Television”, in The African Journalist, ed., W.M. Sulemana-Sibidow, pp. 28–37.
111.
Kofi Batsa, “The Work of Pan-African Union of Journalists”, in The African Journalist, ed., W.M. Sulemana-Sibidow, pp. 17–27; See NARA, RG 59, CFP 1964–66, box 2232, Airgram from Robert P. Coe (American Embassy, Ghana) to Department of State, 26 May 1966.
112.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Addison to Barden, 17 December 1963. At the time, The Spark was no longer controlled by the BAA. See also PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 20 May 1964.
113.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 44.
114.
See, for instance, GPRL, BAA/RLAA/437, lectures in statistics by Comrade Prof. J.M. Perczynski. The citizenship of the lecturer is an Information shared by Robert Todd with the author.
115.
See, for instance, GPRL, BAA/RLAA/437, lecture in Political Economy by Mrs Grace Arnold.
116.
Information shared by Robert Todd with the author.
117.
Information shared by Robert Todd with the author.
118.
TNA, DO 195/135, Letter from Wenban-Smith to Martin, 1 April 1963.
119.
Ibid.
120.
TNA, DO 195/55, Report “Communist Penetration in and from Ghana”, C.R.O., September 1963.
121.
Ibid.
122.
TNA, FO 1110/1967, Letter from Biggin to Ure/Drinkall/Welser/Tucker/Duke, 16 September 1963.
123.
Ibid.
124.
See TNA, FO 1110/1828, Letter from Hornyold to Duke (CRO), 28 February 1964.
125.
See, for instance, TNA, FO 1110/1967, Letter from Biggin to Ure/Drinkall/Welser/Tucker/Duke, 16 September 1963.
126.
TNA, FO 1110/1692, report “The Influence of Ghana in East Africa”, Stather Hunt (British High Commissioner in Uganda) to the Commonwealth Relations Office, 12 September 1963.
127.
See, for instance, GPRL, BAA/RLAA/378, Letter from Maouhamadou Phogkou Nankam (Bafang) to Nkrumah (and 16 other heads of state), 19 October 1963 and GPRL, BAA/RLAA/378, Letter from Neto to Nkrumah, 30 November 1963.
128.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BC-Letters from Delegates to the Conference, “Confidential Memorandum Submitted to the Right Honorable, the President of Ghana Dr. Kwame Nkrumah from the UNIP and the BCP”, undated.
129.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, “Minutes of the PAC-NNLC Leaders Meeting held in Accra, Ghana on the 27th September 1964”; “PAC-NNLC Code”, 16 October 1964 and handwriting, code message, 25 September 1964.
130.
See for instance E.V. Mamphey, “Problems of Africanisation of the Public Service in Emerging States of Africa”, The Pan-Africanist Review: A Quarterly of the African Revolution, 1, 1, 1964, pp. 29–32.
131.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 April 1963.
132.
TNA, CO 1048/526, “Communist Influence within the Basutoland Congress Party” in Central Intelligence Committee, “Communism in Basutoland”, undated.
133.
TNA, CO 1048/526, Telegram from Resident Commissioner of Basutoland to British High Commissioner of Ghana, 6 February 1965.
134.
Richard F. Weisfelder, Political Contention in Lesotho, 1952–1965 (Maseru: Institute of Southern African Studies, 1999), pp. 15–17.
135.
Interview with Molapo Qhobela London 1978 in Leeman, Lesotho, p. 340.
136.
See, for instance, Ntsu Mokhehle, “Success and failure of Basutoland Conference”, in Voice of Africa, 4, 5–6, 1964, C. Tsolo, “Basutoland”, in Voice of Africa, 5, 2, 1965.
137.
Interview with Koelane , 28 September 2017.
138.
Interview with Mokitimi, 28 September 2017.
139.
Interview with Mokitimi, 28 September 2017.
140.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 April 1963.
141.
See GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 23 January 1963; Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 April 1963; Letter from Doku to Barden, 18 July 1963; Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 21 August 1963; Letter from Mokhehle to Molapo Qhobela, 23 August 1963.
142.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 April 1963.
143.
Ibid.
144.
See GPRL, uncatalogued/BC-Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Conference 1965, Provisional Draft, 24 April 1964.
145.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 21 August 1963.
146.
Issue of November 1964 of the BPP “Bechuanaland Newsletter”, GPRL, BAA/RLAA/639.
147.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BC-CONF. OAU 1965, “The BPP’s proposed programme for 1963/1964”.
148.
Ibid.
149.
Interview with Alvit T. Dlamini, Manzini, 22 October 2017.
150.
Interview with Dlamini , 22 October 2017.
151.
Interview with Dlamini , 22 October 2017.
152.
Interview with Dlamini , 22 October 2017.
153.
See GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, Letter from Carr to Polycarp, 26 January 1965 and GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, “National Liberatory Congress on 29/10/65”.
154.
See Hlengiwe Portia Dlamini, “Constitutional Developments in the Kingdom of Swaziland 1960–2005” (PhD thesis, University of Swaziland, 2016).
155.
Agyeman, Nkrumah’s Ghana and East Africa, p. 27; Batsa, The Spark, p. 29.
156.
British Library (BL), EAP121/2/7/1/23, Letter from Munukayumbwa Sipalo to R.S. Makasa (UNIP representative in Dar es Salaam), carbon-copied to the BAA, 8 December 1961.
157.
BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18, Letter by Francis “Mwansa” Kaunda , Dingiswayo Ngwane and Chilufya Chansa Chimpampata, Akuafo Hall, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, UNIP Office in Accra to National Secretary UNIP, 2 January 1963; BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18, Letter from A Milner MLC (Deputy National Secretary, UNIP) to Francis ‘Mwansa’ Kaunda , Akuafo Hall, Legon, 6 March 63. Between the end of 1962 and early 1963, Francis Kaunda briefly became the informal representative of UNIP in Ghana, operating from his residence at Legon. This happened during the “interregnum” between the departure of Sipalo and the arrival of Mulemba . Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
158.
BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18 Letter, Mulemba to Barden, 14 January 1963.
159.
Ibid.
160.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
161.
Interview with Kaunda . 9 October 2017.
162.
BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18, Mulemba, Confidential Report “Bureau of African Affairs”, received by UNIP headquarters on 18 August 1963.
163.
BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18, Mulemba Report “Bureau”, 18 August 1963.
164.
Ibid.
165.
Ibid.
166.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 35.
167.
BL/EAP121/2/5/5/18, Mulemba Report “Bureau”, 18 August 1963.
168.
Interview with Mokitimi, 6 October 2017.
169.
See, for instance, “Subversion Incorporated”, Newsweek, 20 May 1963, p. 41.
170.
TNA, DO 195/257, Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, Official Report, 13 December 1963.
171.
TNA, DO 195/257, Letter from J. Chadwick to Minister of State, 3 March 1964.
172.
TNA, CAB/148–15, “Cabinet – Defence and Overseas Policy Committee, Composition and terms of reference”, 1 October 1963.
173.
See TNA, DO 195/213, Letter “Ghana-JIC Paper”, Martin to Chadwick, 11 March 1964 and TNA, PREM/11/4823, Counter Subversion Committee, “Working Group on Ghana”, record of a meeting held on 23 March 1964 at the Commonwealth Relation Office.
174.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 4.
175.
TNA, PREM/11/4823, Counter Subversion Committee, “Working Group on Ghana”, record of a meeting held on 23 March 1964 at the Commonwealth Relation Office.
176.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 346–347.
177.
TNA, DO 195/213, Telegram from De Freitas to CRO and others, 20 April 1964.
178.
Ibid.
179.
TNA, DO 195/213, Letter from Martin (CRO) to Kellick (British Embassy Washington), 27 August 1964.
180.
TNA, DO 195/213, Letter from Chadwick to Rogers and Martin, 7 May 1964; TNA, DO 195/213, Letter from Chadwick to Snelling, 1 June 1964; TNA, DO 195/213, Letter from Martin to Duke and Costley-White, 22 June 1964.
181.
TNA, DO 195/213, Letter from Owen (British Embassy, Washington DC) to Wool-Lewis (CRO), 15 June 1964.
182.
TNA, FO 1110/1822, Letter from Ure to Drinkall and Barclay, 10 March 1964; TNA, FO 1110/1822, Letter from Clift (UK delegation to NATO) to MacLaren (IRD), 24 January 1964.
183.
NARA, RG 59, CFPF, box 2232, Airgram from Jack F. Matlock (American Embassy, Ghana) to Department of State, 3 December 1964.
184.
TNA, FO 1110/1822, Letter from Ure (IRD-FO) to Goodschild (UK Delegation to NATO), 21 February 1964.
185.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 7.
186.
See Grilli “Nkrumah’s Armed Struggle”, pp. 76–78.
187.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
188.
Interviews with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012 and 4 September 2012.
189.
Interviews with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012 and 4 September 2012; Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and 6 September 2012.
190.
Interview with Bosumtwi-Sam , 24 July 2012. Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
191.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 20 May 1964.
192.
On the clashes between the MFA and the BAA see also Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, pp. 186–187.
193.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 20 May 1964.
194.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 359; Thompson makes no reference to any source for this information.
195.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 365.
196.
Ibid., p. 368.
197.
See, for instance, “Give Southern Rhodesia New Constitution”, Voice of Africa, 4, 2, 1964, p. 2; “Our Opinion: Sir Alex Conference”, Voice of Africa, 4, 3–4, 1964, p. 1; “The Southern Rhodesian Issue”, Voice of Africa, 4, 2, 1964, pp. 15–18. “Britain and Southern Rhodesia”, Voice of Africa, 4, 5–6, 1964, pp. 19–21 and 24–28.
198.
See, for instance, TNA, FO 371/176000, Letter from Kemp (British embassy, Lomé) to Millard (Foreign Office), 12 May 1964.
199.
TNA, CAB/148/42, “Counter Subversion Committee – Summary of recent activities of working groups ad hoc meetings – Ghana”, 8 February 1965.
200.
TNA, DO 195/213, Note of Wool Lewis to Rogers, 18 February 1964.
201.
TNA, DO 195/213, report, “JIC (65) 35 – Supply of Soviet Bloc and Chinese Arms to New Commonwealth Countries – GHANA”.
202.
Ibid.
203.
Interview with Mokitimi, 28 September 2017.
204.
Interview with Malindisa, 10 April 2017.
205.
NARA, RG 59, CFP 1964–66, box 2231, Airgram from American Embassy, Ghana to Department of State, 21 January 1965.
206.
ICS, Basn/2/190 (old catalog. system), now part of ICS/88, quoted in Biney “Ghana’s Contribution”, p. 89.
207.
Makonnen and King, Pan-Africanism from Within, p. 208.
208.
NARA, RG 59, CFP 1964–66, box 2234, Airgram from William B. Edmondson (American Embassy, Ghana) to the Department of State, 7 May 1964.
209.
Makonnen and King, Pan-Africanism from Within, p. 208.
210.
Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, pp. 175–176.
211.
Interview of Helao Shityuwete by Richard Pakleppa. Transcription shared with the author. Courtesy of Richard Pakleppa.
212.
Interview with Malindisa, 5 March 2017. This information is confirmed by South African intelligence sources, see SADOD/AMI/Group 3, Box 360, File 148/5/1/1, Vol 70 J, “RSA-PAC”, Source Sheet 2326, 8 April 1965.
213.
Interview with Malindisa, 5 March 2017.
214.
Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, p. 186.
215.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 3.
216.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Nkrumah to Barden, 10 June 1965.
217.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Ofori-Bah to Nkrumah, 30 June 1965; PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from Ofori-Bah to Osei (auditor-general), 30 July 65.
218.
Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah, p. 186.
219.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 358.
220.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 3.
221.
Ibid., p. 3.
222.
Armah , Peace without Power, p. 22.
223.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 333.
224.
Batsa, The Spark, pp. 33–34.
225.
Armah , Peace without Power, pp. 159–160.
226.
Ibid., p. 160.
227.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 377–381.
228.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Deception of Africa, pp. 10–11.
229.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/383, Letter from Ofori-Bah to the General Manager Ghana Commercial Bank, 30 July 1965 and Letter from Ofori-Bah to the General Manager Ghana Commercial Bank, 4 August 1965. The first letter refers to a Sawaba member. The second one to a UPC member.
230.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/357, Letter from Batsa to Nkrumah, 6 April 1965; GPRL, BAA/RLAA/357, Letter from Nkrumah to Batsa, 8 April 1965.
231.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/357, Letter from Batsa to Nkrumah, 6 April 1965.
232.
See Biney, “Nkrumah’s Contribution”, pp. 92–95; “ANC Opens its Office in Accra”, The Spark, 3 September 1965; Batsa, The Spark, p. 17.
233.
See, for instance, E.K. Mickson, “Freedom Fighters of Mozambique”, The Spark, 2 July 1965.
234.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Mohale, Mpeta and Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 March 1965.
235.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Mokhehle to Ofori-Bah, 9 November 1965; Letter from Mohale to Ofori-Bah, 15 November 1965; Letter from Mpeta to Ofori-Bah, 10 December 1965 and “general meeting Tuesday 24 August 1965”.
236.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Chakela to Ofori-Bah, 27 January 1966.
237.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/393, Letter from Molale, Mpeta and Molapo Qhobela to Barden, 5 March 1965.
238.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, Letter from Khoza (NNLC) to Makoti (PAC), 1 March 1965.
239.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, “Memorandum of the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) of South Africa submitted to the fourth Afro-Asian Conference held at Winneba, Ghana, from May 9 to May 16, 1965”.
240.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-Accra to Maseru Headquarters, Press release, PAC, 24 October 1965.
241.
GPRL, uncatalogued file/BC-CONF. OAU 1965, “Invitation to the nationalist movements”, undated.
242.
PRAAD, RG/17/1/198, Letter from J.A.K. Kyiamh to the Secretary of the BAA, 12 July 1965.
243.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 384.
244.
Armah , Peace without Power, 22; National Archives of Zambia [henceforth NAZ], FA/1/55, Undersecretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Zambia to the Permanent Secretary of the same body, 18 December 1965.
245.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 385; NAZ, FA/1/55, “Declaration on the Problem of Subversion”, 24 October 1965.
246.
SADOD/AMI/Group 3, Box 360, File 148/5/1/1, Vol 70 J, “RSA-PAC”, Source Sheet 2146, “RSA—Political”, 23 February 1965.
247.
“Join The Volunteers for Southern Rhodesia”, The Party Chronicle, 2, no. 12, 26 November 1965.
248.
Afrifa, The Ghana Coup, p. 104.
249.
Ibid., p. 104.
250.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 393.
251.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, pp. 53–54; Quarm, Diplomatic Servant, pp. 20–21.

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University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Matteo Grilli

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Grilli, M. (2018). Between Diplomacy and Revolution (1963–1966). In: Nkrumaism and African Nationalism. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91325-4_6

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91325-4_6
Published: 07 August 2018
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