Shifting to the Left (1961–1962)

Grilli, Matteo

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91325-4_5

Shifting to the Left (1961–1962)

Matteo Grilli⁴

Chapter
First Online: 07 August 2018

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Part of the book series: African Histories and Modernities ((AHAM))

Abstract

This chapter describes a period of radicalization (1961–1962). Nkrumah’s measures included the establishment of the African Affairs Secretariat, the strengthening of propaganda and the development of training facilities (including military) for freedom fighters, intending to influence them ideologically. In 1961 the Ideological Institute was opened to both Ghanaians and freedom fighters. The outcome of Barden’s work in 1961–1962 was double-edged. On the one side, the BAA succeeded in creating important connections with African liberation movements, as proven by the testimonies of the eye-witnesses interviewed. On the other side, African liberation movements also began to suffer Barden’s interference with the internal affairs of the parties. As a result, by mid-1962, the first cracks in Ghana’s leadership of the liberation struggle began to show.

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Notes

1.
Quarm, Diplomatic Offensive, p. 29.
2.
Nugent, Africa Since Independence, p. 100.
3.
The 12 members were: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo Republic (Brazzaville), Dahomey, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Malagasy Republic, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta. See Bakpetu Thompson, Africa and Unity, p. 150, and Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 148.
4.
Erasmus H. Kloman Jr, “African Unification Movements”, International Organisation 16, no. 2, 1962, p. 396. The Conseil de l’Entente was formed in May 1959 and comprised Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta and Dahomey.
5.
Bakpetu Thompson, Africa and Unity, p. 150.
6.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/370, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 29 November 1960.
7.
See Welch, Dream of Unity, pp. 308–310.
8.
Ibid., pp. 312–313. See also the official declaration in Legum, Pan-Africanism, pp. 176–179.
9.
Kloman Jr, “African Unification Movements”, p. 395.
10.
Armah , Peace Without Power, p. 101.
11.
Kloman Jr, “African Unification Movements”, p. 391.
12.
See Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, 177. See also Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 49 and 137.
13.
Thompson Bakpetu, Africa and Unity, pp. 157–158 and 172–174.
14.
Later, during the same year (September 1961), the francophone ex-members of the Brazzaville group formed the Union Africaine et Malgache (UAM).
15.
Aluko, Ghana and Nigeria, p. 74.
16.
TNA, DO 177/2, Letter from Kennaway (British High Commission in Ghana) to Mandeville (CRO), 24 May 1961.
17.
TNA, DO 177/2, Letter from Kennaway to Mandeville, 24 May 1961.
18.
TNA, DO 177/2, document marked “secret” titled “Ghanaian Acts which can be attributed by the Nigerians as Being Unfriendly Towards Nigeria”, undated but part of a wider British report dating 1961.
19.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 80.
20.
Aluko, Ghana and Nigeria, p. 148.
21.
Ibid., pp. 148–149.
22.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 149 and 237.
23.
Ahlman, Living with Nkrumahism, pp. 154–155.
24.
See Gerits, “When the Bull Elephants Fight”.
25.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 162.
26.
Adamafio , By Nkrumah’s Side, p. 90.
27.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 33. See also, Alessandro Iandolo, “Soviet policy in West Africa, 1957–64” (PhD Dissertation, University of Oxford, 2011); Alessandro Iandolo, “The Rise and Fall of the ‘Soviet Model of Development’ in West Africa, 1957–64”, Cold War History, 12, 4, 2012, pp. 683–704.
28.
“A speech at a Dinner in honor of President Tito, Accra, March 1, 1961”. In S. Obeng (Ed.), Selected Speeches of Kwame Nkrumah, vol. 1, pp. 295–296.
29.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 177–183.
30.
See Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, 52. See also Matteo Landricina, “From Natural Mediator to Junior Partner: Perceptions and Self-Perception in West Germany’s Diplomatic Conferences on Africa, 1959–1968”, Diplomacy & Statecraft, 27, 3, 2016, pp. 453–472.
31.
Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, pp. 322–335.
32.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 7.
33.
Ibid., p. 25.
34.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
35.
Kwame Nkrumah, “Dawn Broadcast”, April 1961 in Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, p. 315.
36.
Ibid. The All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF) was the first attempt to realize a Pan-African trade union organization. It was established at the Casablanca Conference a few months prior. See Opuku Agyeman, The Failure of Grassroots Pan-Africanism, The Case of the All-African Trade Union Federation (Oxford: Lexington Books, 2003).
37.
On Egala’s appointment see TNA, FCO 141/6735, Letter from Flack (British High Commission in Accra) to Browne (CRO), 31 May 1961.
38.
Statement of K.B. Asante, undated, included in a footnote in Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 25.
39.
Ibid., pp. 25, 57–58.
40.
Interview with Asante, 4 September 2011.
41.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 25.
42.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign policy, p. 199.
43.
TNA, FCO 141/6735, Letter from Flack (British High Commission in Accra) to Browne (Commonwealth Relations Office), 31 May 1961.
44.
Michael Dei-Anang instead included the AAS among the institutions following “unorthodox” diplomatic lines. See Dei -Anang, The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, 25. Dei-Anang himself, however, also writes that the AAS and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs “undertook purely diplomatic duties” (ibid., p. 4).
45.
Kwame Nkrumah, Opening Session, speech of Kwame Nkrumah, 7th April 1960 in Positive Action Conference for Peace and Security in Africa (Accra: Community Centre, 1960), p. 4.
46.
Fuller, Building the Ghanaian Nation-State, p. 127.
47.
Kwame Nkrumah, “The Kwame Nkrumah Institute”, in Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, pp. 272–273.
48.
Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, pp. 273–274.
49.
Francis Kaunda, Things to Remember, Not to Forget (Lusaka: New Horizon Printers, 2016), p. 25.
50.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
51.
Interview with Kaunda, 9 October 2017.
52.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
53.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017. “Kasa” means “speak” in Twi, the most commonly spoken Akan dialect in Ghana. “Sosa” has the same meaning in Bemba, a language spoken in Zambia.
54.
Kaunda , Things to Remember, p. 23.
55.
Interview with Kaunda, 9 October 2017.
56.
Interview with Kaunda, 9 October 2017.
57.
Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017. Kaunda spoke on behalf of UNIP.
58.
Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, vol. 1, pp. 273–274.
59.
Agyeman, Ideological Education, 7; Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 257 and 418.
60.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 113. See, for instance “University Embraces Nkrumaism”, Evening News, 25 June 1960; “Nkrumaism: Symbol of Hope for Oppressed Africans”, Evening News, 1 July 1960; C.L.M. James , “Nkrumaism, Keystone of Progress in Africa”, Evening News, 15 July 1960.
61.
Quoted in Omari, Kwame Nkrumah, p. 121.
62.
See Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism?, p. 318.
63.
Agyeman, Ideological Education, p. 11.
64.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/376, circular, “General Office Instructions – All-Staff”, sent by the Director (Barden), 5 September 1961.
65.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and David Bosumtwi-Sam, 24 July 2012. See Ahlman, “Managing the Pan-African Workplace”, and Chap. 5 of Ahlman, Living with Nkrumaism.
66.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/376, service regulation, “Clerical Officer (Records)”, sent by the Director (Barden), 15 September 1961.
67.
Interview with Bosumtwi -Sam, 24 July 2012.
68.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 112.
69.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011.
70.
Makonnen and King, Pan-Africanism from Within, p. 206.
71.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/325, Letter from Bosumtwi-Sam (BAA) to the National Organiser of the Builders Brigadiers and Armah, 22 June 1961. See also in the same file: Letter, Bosumtwi -Sam (BAA) to the National Organizer of the Builders Brigade and Armah, 23 June 1961.
72.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK- Ideological Course for Political Organizations of Dependent African States [henceforth ICPODAS], “List of Political Organisation of Dependent African States for the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological School at Winneba – Commencing 15th November 1961”, undated.
73.
GPRL, uncatalogued BK-ICPODAS, draft for telegram, Barden to Executive Officer of KANU, 14 November 1961.
74.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Budu-Acquah to Dei-Anang, 14 November 1961.
75.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letters from Barden to Dei-Anang, 29 November, 5 and 6 December 1961.
76.
On Sierra Leone’s request See GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter (handwritten) from Siaka Stevens to Barden, 30 November 1961 (and the following transcript). Barden accepted and sent them three tickets. See GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Barden to Siaka Stevens, 2 December 1961. The request from Guyana came directly to Nkrumah’s office and consequently it was forwarded to Barden’s. See GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Iprahim (Office of the President) to Barden, 5 October 1961. The scholarships for the Guyanese students were approved only for the next course scheduled. See GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Chinebuah to Barden, 3 February 1962.
77.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Barden to Iprahim, 6 February 1962.
78.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Note, “Curriculum”, undated.
79.
Ibid.
80.
See GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Barden to the Minister of Local Government, 31 October 1961. The Minister agreed and sent two members of his staff to speak about Local Government Administration. See GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Addai to Barden, 11 November 1961.
81.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Addai to Barden, 11 November 1961. Some of the most important personalities of Ghana, including Ako Adjei, accepted.
82.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Principal Secretary of the Minister of Foreign Affairs to Dei-Anang and Barden, 5 December 1961; GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Asante to Principal Secretary of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 12 December 1961.
83.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Draft Memorandum, “Development of the Kwame Nkrumah Institute, Winneba, as the Institute of Political Science”, 24 January 1962.
84.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Adu (Secretary of NCHER) to Barden, 24 January 1962.
85.
Ibid.
86.
See, for example, the files of the NLC administration (dating after the coup, in February1966): PRAAD, R/G3/5/1635; PRAAD, RG/3/5/1636; PRAAD, RG/11/1/148; PRAAD, RG/11/1/154; PRAAD, RG/11/1/357; see also NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion.
87.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Draft Memorandum, “Development of the Kwame Nkrumah Institute, Winneba, as the Institute of Political Science”, 24 January 1962.
88.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Barden to Adu (NCHER), 1 February 1962.
89.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Garba-Jahumpa to Barden, 12 February 1962.
90.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Draft Memorandum, “Development of the Kwame Nkrumah Institute, Winneba, as the Institute of Political Science”, 24 January 1962.
91.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Barden to Adu (NCHER), 1 February 1962.
92.
Ibid.
93.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Adu (NCHER) to Barden, 3 February 1962.
94.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Draft Memorandum, “Development of the Kwame Nkrumah Institute, Winneba, as the Institute of Political Science”, 24 January 1962.
95.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/423, Letter from Barden to Adu (NCHER), 1 February 1962.
96.
Makonnen and King, Pan-Africanism from Within, pp. 205–206.
97.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 28.
98.
Ibid., pp. 28–29.
99.
Quarm, Diplomatic Offensive, p. 12.
100.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/370, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 1 December 1960.
101.
Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the armed struggle”, pp. 59–61.
102.
Interview with Asante, 6 September 2012.
103.
Magnus Gunther, “The National Committee of Liberation (NCL)/African Resistance Movement (ARM),” in SADET, eds, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, vol 1 (1960–1970) (Cape Town: Zebra Press, 2004), pp. 217–218.
104.
Interview with Bosumtwi -Sam, 4 September 2012; Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 156–157. The Bureau was in contact with Pierre Mulele, by then representative of Gizenga’s Lumumbists in Cairo. See GPRL, BAA/uncatalogued “Conference of Leaders of Nationalist Organization, 1961”, Letter/Cablegram from A.K. Barden to Pierre Mulele (Cairo), 5 June 1961.
105.
GPRL, BAA/uncatalogued “Conference of Leaders of Nationalist Organization, 1961”, model of letter of invitation to the conference, signed by A.K. Barden, 29 May 1961.
106.
GPRL, BAA/uncatalogued “Conference of Leaders of Nationalist Organization, 1961”.
107.
GPRL, BAA/uncatalogued/BC–Letters from Delegates to the Conference, “Confidential Memorandum Submitted to the Right Honourable President of the Republic of Ghana Dr. Kwame Nkrumah”, signed by Ntsu Mokhehle (President of the BCP ) and Munukayumbwa Sipalo (National Secretary of UNIP), Ghana, 27 June 1961.
108.
NASA/BTS/109/7 vol. 1, Memorandum “Militêre Opleiding van Bantoes in die Buiteland”.
109.
See Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the armed struggle”, pp. 64–69; NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 6.
110.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Barden to the Principal Immigration Officer, Ministry of the Interior and Local Government, 10 July 1962; José Mendes de Carvalho, also known with his pseudonym Hoji-ya-Henda, died in 1968 and became a national hero in Angola.
111.
The name of Francis was included in the list of UNIP trainees. However, he denied having taken part in the course. Most likely the BAA erroneously added his name as he had been a guest of the Bureau during 1961. Instead, between late 1961 and early 1962, he moved from the Bureau to the University College of Ghana, where he enrolled at the Medical School. Interview with Kaunda , 9 October 2017.
112.
On the training at the AAC, see Makonnen and King, Pan-Africanism from Within, p. 207.
113.
While no training was ever provided at the KNII /KNIEPS , at some point in time, its introduction was contemplated. Interview with Bosutmwi-Sam, 4 September 2012.
114.
GPRL, uncatalogued BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Barden to the Principal Immigration Officer, Ministry of the Interior and Local Government, 10 July 1962.
115.
According to the findings of the NLC, in 1962, the KNII /KNIEPS was used to “house and conceal” graduates from Mankrong. However, the NLC’s numbers (46) differ from those of the list of the Bureau. See NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 44.
116.
NASA/BTS/109/7 vol. 1, Memorandum “Militêre Opleiding van Bantoes in die Buiteland ”. Ikoku, Le Ghana de Nkrumah, p. 177.
117.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, p. 29.
118.
Interviews with Asante , 4 September 2011 and 6 September 2012.
119.
Interview with Bosumtwi -Sam, 24 July 2012.
120.
For Armah’s comments on the issue see Armah , Peace without Power, p. 29.
121.
Dei-Anang , The Administration of Ghana’s Foreign Relations, pp. 30–31.
122.
Ibid., p. 29.
123.
Interview with Asante , 4 September 2011, and interview with Bosumtwi-Sam, 24 July 2012.
124.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 204. See also Daily Graphic, 3 February 1961.
125.
See Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 204–205, 207. On the Ghana–Upper Volta relationship see Quarm, Diplomatic Offensive, p. 42; Saffu, “The Bases of Ghana-Upper Volta Relations”.
126.
GPRL, uncatalogued/AA-Office Stationery Equipment and Accommodation, Letter from Bosumtwi-Sam to the Manager of Avenida Hotel, Accra, 25 April 1961.
127.
For further information on Sawaba in Ghana see also NLC, Nkrumah’s Deception of Africa, pp. 5–7 and Van Walraven, The Yearning for Relief.
128.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 221–222.
129.
See Dennis Austin, “The Uncertain Frontier: Ghana-Togo”, The Journal of Modern African Studies 1, 2, 1963, pp. 139–145; R. Bagulo Bening, “The Ghana-Togo Boundary”, Africa Spectrum, 18, 2, 1983, pp. 191–209.
130.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 148.
131.
NLC, Nkrumah’s Subversion, p. 4.
132.
See Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 239–242.
133.
See TNA, DO 177/2, “Subversive Activities by Ghanaians in Nigeria”, Extract of “Nigerian Fortnightly Summary”, 29 September–12 October 1961.
134.
TNA, DO 177/2, “Subversive Activities by Ghanaians in Nigeria”, and “Ghanaian Armed Intervention in Western Nigeria in the Event of the Latter’s Secession from the Federation”, 13 July 1961.
135.
On the break between the ANC and Ghana between 1962 and 1965 see Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 222–223; Batsa, The Spark, p. 17; Scott Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC since 1960 (London: IB Tauris Academic Studies, 1996), pp. 29–33; S.M. Ndlovu, “The ANC and the world”, in SADET, eds, The Road to Democracy, vol. 1, pp. 541–572; Biney, “Ghana’s Contribution”.
136.
Mac Maharaj, personal communication, April 2017; A. Sampson, Mandela: The Authorized Biography (London: HarperCollinsPublishers, 1999), p. 167; The ANC nevertheless sent a document concerning the birth of MK to Nkrumah in May 1962, probably in view of a possible collaboration pact, which, however, was never signed. See Ellis, External Mission, p. 26.
137.
Extract of the diary of Nelson Mandela used as evidence in the Rivonia Trial, quoted in Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 222.
138.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 222–223. See also Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation, pp. 30–34.
139.
Batsa, The Spark, p. 17.
140.
For more than three years the ANC “wrote Nkrumah off”, Colin Legum, interview with W.S. Thompson, in Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 223.
141.
Interview with Malindisa, 14 March 2017.
142.
Interview with Mothupi, 6 March 2017. See also Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution, pp. 51–52.
143.
South African Department of Defence [henceforth SADOD], Afdeling Militêre Inligting [henceforth AMI], HDZ/15/111/RSA-PAC, Letter from Peter Molotsi (PAC/SAUF Office in Accra) to Nana Mahomo, 16 October 1961.
144.
GPRL, uncatalogued/ BK-ICPODAS, Letter from Barden to the Principal Immigration Officer, Ministry of the Interior and Local Government, 10 July 1962; Interview with Malindisa, 10 April 2017. The real name of Nga “Mamba” Machema was Manelisi Ndibongo. See Lazlo Passemiers, “The Pan Africanist Congress and the Congo Alliance, 1963–1964”, South African Historical Journal 70, no. 1, 2018.
145.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 223.
146.
Nkrumah, Step to Freedom; Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros—Arquivo Histórico Diplomático [henceforth AHD], PAA 908, Letter from the Ambassador of Portugal in the UK to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 15 June 1962.
147.
AHD, PAA 908, Letter from the Ambassador of Portugal in the UK to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 15 June 1962; AHD, PAA-908, Letter from A. Coelho Lopes to Ministry of the Ultramar, 20 June 1962; See also Richard Beeston, “‘Freedom Fighters’ to oust whites”, Sunday Telegraph, 10 June 1962; “Nkrumah wants all Africa ‘free’ by the end of the year”, Daily Telegraph, 5 June 1962; “New ‘deadline’ for colonial powers”, The Times, 5 June 1962.
148.
Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 222.
149.
Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. 1, p. 96. According to Bosumtwi -Sam the break was caused by Roberto’s relationship with Mobutu’s family. Interview with Bosumtwi -Sam, 4 September 2012.
150.
GPRL, uncatalogued/BK-ICPODAS, “List of Political Organisation of Dependent African States for the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological School at Winneba – Commencing 15th November 1961”, undated.
151.
Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 261–262.
152.
Ibid., p. 262.
153.
Ibid., p. 262.
154.
According to Portuguese sources, during the conference Nkrumah had tried to push UDENAMO and MANU to form a united front. AHD, PAA 908, Letter from the Cabinet of Political Affairs to Director General of Political Affairs, 3 October 1962.
155.
Elwood Dunn, “The OAU and the Mozambique Revolution”, Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 3, 1, 1973, pp. 29–32. On UDENAMO see also L.T. Ndelana, From UDENAMO to FRELIMO and Mozambican Diplomacy (Headline Books, 2015).
156.
Up until the establishment of FRELIMO, UDENAMO had been aligned with the Casablanca Group. The latter also sponsored the establishment of the Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas (CONCP) on 18 April 1961; See “Mozambique Prepares for Revolution”, Africa Today, 9, 9, 1962, pp. 7–9.
157.
Ako Adjei, interview with Thompson, in Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 223.
158.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/370, “Report of the Activities of the Bureau – January to December 1960”, Barden to Nkrumah, 16 December 1960.
159.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/370, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 30 December 1960.
160.
Ibid.
161.
Ibid.
162.
Batsa, The Spark, p. 6.
163.
GPRL, BAA/RLAA/370, Letter from Erica Powell (Personal Secretary of Nkrumah) to Barden, 10 January 1961.
164.
Batsa, The Spark, p. 13.
165.
See Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p. 22.
166.
See PRAAD, RG/17/1/465 /African Affairs Committee, Fourth Meeting of the African Affairs Committee, 9 November 1959.
167.
“Padmore the Missionary”, 30 June 1961, in Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, pp. 375–379.
168.
Kwame Nkrumah, “Birth of my Party”, Voice of Africa, 1, 1, 1961, pp. 2–4.
169.
Aloysius K. Barden, “African Unity Now”, Voice of Africa, 1, 1, 1961, pp. 8–9.
170.
See for example: Nelson Mandela, “We Shall Win”, Voice of Africa, 2, 3, 1962, pp. 16–19; Nelson Mandela, “The United Nations and South Africa”, Voice of Africa, 4, 7–8, 1964, pp. 28–29; Nelson Mandela, “Why I am ready to Die”, Voice of Africa, 5, 1, 1965, pp. 11–18.
171.
Batsa, The Spark, p. 13.
172.
See GPRL, uncatalogued/AA-Office Stationery Equipment And Accommodation, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 21 November 1961.
173.
Batsa, The Spark, pp. 13–14.
174.
One of the first references to a French version of VOA is in GPRL, BAA/RLAA/325, Letter from Linguistic Secretary to Batsa, 3 June 1961.
175.
See GPRL, uncatalogued/AA-Office Stationery Equipment and Accommodation, Letter from Barden to Nkrumah, 21 November 1961.
176.
K. Batsa, The Spark, p. 14.
177.
For Ikoku’s own recollections of his period in Ghana see Ikoku , Le Ghana de Nkrumah.
178.
See Speech for the opening of the Ghana External Broadcasting Service “Voice of Africa” by Kwame Nkrumah on 27 October 1961, in Nkrumah, Selected Speeches, pp. 386–388.
179.
Quarm, Diplomatic Offensive, pp. 20–21.
180.
Voice of Africa, vol. 1, 9, 1961, p. 32.

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Matteo Grilli

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Grilli, M. (2018). Shifting to the Left (1961–1962). In: Nkrumaism and African Nationalism. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91325-4_5

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