Abstract
Friedrich Hölderlin’s novel, Hyperion, opens with fantas ies of the protagonist’s melding into unity with nature. These visions of oneness find a corollary in the novel’s setting within an idealized version of Greece. I argue that we can best understand the significance of Hyperion’s desire to be “one with everything” by considering it within the context of Hölderlin’s and Friedrich Schelling’s attempt in the 1790s to find a way to incorporate a dynamic view of nature into German Idealist philosophy, in part, by transforming the concept of “intellectual intuition.” Key to understand the novel is thus the idea of an intellectual form of intuition that opens possibilities of non-material connections with a world of things that are dynamically alive and interconnected.
“To be one with all—that is the life of the divinity, that is the heaven of man.”
[“Eines zu seyn mit Allem, das ist Leben der Gottheit, das ist der Himmel des Menschen.”]
—Hölderlin, Hyperion
For the translation, see Friedrich Hölderlin, Hyperion or the Hermit in Greece, trans. Ross Benjamin (Brooklyn: Archipelago Books, 2008), 12. For the original text, see Friedrich Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, ed. Friedrich Beissner and Adolf Beck, Grosse Stuttgarter Ausgabe, 8 vols. (in 15) (Stuttgart: Cotta; W. Kohlhammer, 1943–1985), 3:9. (Hyperion is in vol. 3, 1957.) For all quotations from Hyperion, I cite Ross Benjamin’s translation (unless otherwise noted). I also provide the reference for each quotation from the Grosse Stuttgarter Ausgabe.
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Notes
- 1.
Acrocorinth, is thus not to be confused with Corinth itself. See also Chap. 5, note 9.
- 2.
On Byron’s crossing of the Isthmus of Corinth, see his own note to The Siege of Corinth: “Napoli di Romania is not now the most considerable place in the Morea, but Tripolitza, where the Pacha resides, and maintains his government. Napoli is near Argos. I visited all three in 1810–1811; and in the course of journeying through the country, from my first arrival in 1809, crossed the Isthmus eight times on my way from Attica to the Morea, over the mountains, or in other directions when passing from the Gulf of Athens to that of Lepanto.” Lord Byron, The Complete Poetical Works, ed. Jerome J. McGann (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 3:483.
- 3.
Hölderlin’s sources for first-hand knowledge of Greece were Richard Chandler (1738–1810) and Marie Gabriel Choiseul-Gouffier (1752–1817). Chandler, whose Travels in Greece (1776) had been translated into German, was able to undertake the journey only because he was supported by the English “Society of Dilettanti.” Hölderlin knew Choiseul-Gouffier’s Voyage Pittoresque en Gréce (1782) also through German translation. See Richard Chandler, Travels in Greece: Or, an Account of a Tour made at the Expense of the Society of Dilettanti. 1 Vol. (Dublin, 1776).
- 4.
It is not difficult to reconstruct the chronology of the narrative since it refers to known historical events. For more details on the relation of the narrative to historical time, see Michael Knaupp, Erläuterungen und Dokumente: Friedrich Hölderlin Hyperion (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997), 76–77.
- 5.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 11. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:8.
- 6.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 10. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:7.
- 7.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 10. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:7. In a rather strange coincidence, both Hölderlin and Byron, independently of each other, place jackals on the Corinthian Isthmus . From Byron’s The Siege of Corinth:Verse
Verse The jackal’s troop, in gathered cry, Bayed from afar complainingly. (lines 1024–1025)
In his own note to these lines Byron admits he took “poetical license” in transplanting the jackals he heard “among the ruins of Ephesus” to Greece. Complete Poetical Works, 3:487. Hölderlin apparently likewise transplanted his jackals from Asia Minor, having read of them (in translation) in Chandler’s Travels in Asia Minor. Chandler makes no mention of jackals in Greece. On Hyperion’s jackals, see Beissner’s commentary in Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:439. See also Knaupp, Erläuterungen, 9.
- 8.
John Keats, The Complete Poems, ed. Jack Stillinger (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 282.
- 9.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, Shelley’s Poetry and Prose, ed. Donald H. Reiman and Neil Fraistat (New York: Norton, 2002), 406 (lines 574–575).
- 10.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 13. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke 3:8.
- 11.
For a detailed history of the origins of the novel see Beissner in Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke 3: 296–335. On the structure of the novel as a movement between contraction and expansion, following Hölderlin’s notion of the “exzentrische Bahn” (“eccentric path ”), which he elaborates at the beginning of Fragment von Hyperion and the Vorletzte Fassung (Penultimate Version), see Lawrence Ryan, Friedrich Hölderlin (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1962), 26. Knaupp represents the novel graphically as a double spiral in which the narration temporally parallels the narrated material (Knaupp, Erläuterungen, 77).
- 12.
For one critic who does take note of the landscape’s importance, see Alexander Honold, “Hyperions Raum: zur Topographie des Exzentrischen,” Hyperion—Terra Incognita: Expeditionen in Hölderlins Roman, ed. Hansjörg Bay (Oblanden/Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1998), 39–65. Honold reads the isthmus as a “topography of the in-between (zwischen),” suggesting that Hyperion cannot long remain on this liminal ground. I agree with this neither-quite-here-nor-there assessment of the isthmus but argue that it simultaneously represents a locus where everything comes together, and as such highlights Hölderlin’s notion of Being (Seyn).
- 13.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 12. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:8–9.
- 14.
On Hyperion as given to Rousseauean regressions (“die wiederholten Regressionen des Helden”), see Sylvain Guarda, “Hölderlins Kinderspiel Hyperion: Ideologiekritik oder Wahnvorstellung?,” Monatshefte 99, no. 1 (2007), 64. On Hyperion’s desire to “flee the world and commune with Nature,” see Walter Silz, Hölderlin’s Hyperion: A Critical Reading (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1969), 33. Constantine reads the novel’s opening scene, and Hyperion’s longing to be one with all, as an example of “misguided” escapism. David Constantine, Friedrich Hölderlin (Munich: Beck Verlag, 1992), 90. For Fre ud and the “feeling as of something limitless, unbounded—as it were ‘oceanic’ (Unbegrenztem, Schrankenlosem, gleichsam ‘Ozeanischem’),” see Civilization and its Discontents, trans. and ed. James Strachey (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1989), 11. For the original, see Freud, Sigmund, Gesammelte Werke chronologisch geordnet, 18 vols., ed. Anna Freud, et al. (London: Imago Publishing, 1948), 14:421–422.
- 15.
Julia Kristeva, Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia, trans. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 20. This longing for undifferentiated being resonates as well with the Lacanian notion of the movement from Being into Meaning, and with its attendant fantasies of a return to pure being, of struggle against the Symbolic in favour of the Imaginary. Though beyond the scope of this study, it is difficult to resist a psychoanalytic reading of the novel’s opening scene: Hyperion, plagued by the trauma of absence, turns to a landscape that on the one hand reflects the loss of being that accompanies the movement into language and the Symbolic, the castration underlying all signification (represented by the knife-cut of the Isthmus ), yet on the other hand points to the possibility of reintegration, of a return to the Imaginary as a place of undifferentiated being.
- 16.
For a comparison of Hyperion with Die Leiden des jungen Werther , see Werther’s letter from 12 December in which he describes a flooded landscape and his fantasies of casting himself into the raging waters as a return to unity with nature: “With open arms I faced the abyss and breathed down! down, and lost myself in the ecstasy of casting all of my pain and all of my suffering down into the water, of raging there like the waves.” (my trans.) [“Mit offenen Armen stand ich gegen den Abgrund, und atmete hinab! hinab, und verlor mich in der Wonne, all meine Qualen all mein Leiden da hinab zu stürmen, dahin zu brausen wie die Wellen”] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Goethes Werke, Herausgegeben im Auftrage der Großherzogin Sophie von Sachsen.133 vols. (Weimar: Böhlau, 1887–1919), I.19:151. On the influence of Goethe’s Werther on Hyperion, see Beissner, Hölderlin Sämtliche Sämtliche Werke, 3: 429–432. See also Howard Gaskill, Hölderlin’s Hyperion (Kendall: Titus Wilson and Son, 1984), 15. Gaskill argues that there are “numerous verbal echoes and thematic correspondences, quite apart from the similarity of form.” Gaskill, Hölderlin, 15.
- 17.
For Freud and the fort/da game, see Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Jenseits des Lustprinzips): Freud, Sigmund, Gesammelte Werke chronologisch geordnet, 18 vols., ed. Anna Freud, et al. (London: Imago Publishing, 1948), 13:11–13.
- 18.
Qtd. in Gunter Martens, Friedrich Hölderlin. 5th ed. (Reinbeck bei Hamburg: Rowholt, 1996), 52.
- 19.
On the Tübingen friends’ support for the French revolution, see Lawrence Ryan, Friedrich Hölderlin (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1962), 15.
- 20.
Qtd. in Martens, Friedrich Hölderlin, 48.
- 21.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:236.
- 22.
Friedrich Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, Briefe, und Dokumente in zeitlicher Folge. Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe: “Frankfurter Ausgabe,” ed. D. E. Sattler and Anja Ross (Frankfurt: Stroemfeld Verlag, 2007), 2:39. For more on the origins of the Hen Kai Pan motto for Hölderlin, see Christoph Jamme and Frank Völkel, eds. Hölderlin und der deutsche Idealismus: Dokumente und Kommentare zu Hölderlins philosophischer Entwicklung und den philosophisch-kulturellen Kontexten seiner Zeit 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: frommann-holzboog, 2005), 1:337. For more on Hen Kai Pan as a “motto of forbidden pantheism” for the three Stiftler, see Max L. Baeumer, “Hölderlin und das Hen Kai Pan,” Monatshefte 59, no. 2 (Summer, 1967), 132. Contra Jac obi, Baeumer finds it doubtful that Less ing actually used the term.
- 23.
For the text in German, see Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 4.1:298. The text is in Heg el’s handwriting, but, according to Beissner, likely composed by Schelling as influenced by Hölderlin’s ideas, between June and August, 1796. Beissner, Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 4.1:425. For more on the controversy regarding the authorship and dating of this text, see Michael Franz, “Hölderlin und das ‘Älteste Systemprogramm des deutschen Idealismus’,” (Hölderlin Jahrbuch 19–20, 1977), 328–357. Thomas Pfau provides a brief summary of the issues surrounding the text, in English: Friedrich Hölderlin, Friedrich Hölderlin: Essays and Letters on Theory, trans. Thomas Pfau, ed. Thomas Pfau (Albany: SUNY UP, 1988), 182.
- 24.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:138.
- 25.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:139.
- 26.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:139.
- 27.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:140.
- 28.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:140.
- 29.
Dieter Henrich, “Fichte in Jena,” trans. Taylor Carman, The Course of Remembrance and Other Essays on Hölderlin (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 100.
- 30.
See Athenäum fragment number 216: “The French Revolution, Fichte’s Wissenschaftslehre, and Goethe’s Meister [the novel, Wilhelm Meister’s Years of Apprenticeship] are the greatest tendencies of the age.” Friedrich von Schlegel, Kritische Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe, ed. Ernst Behler (Munich: Schöningh, 1979), 2:198.
- 31.
Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism 1781–1801 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 349. Beiser points out that this “completely new form of idealism” was also designated with other terms, such as “objective idealism,” “syncriticism,” “transcendental idealism,” or often simply “idealism.” See Beiser, German Idealism, 349. In a letter to Schiller from 6 January 1798 Goethe refers to Schelling, et al. as “der transcendentelle Idealist.” See Goethe, Werke, 4.13:10–11.
- 32.
As Frederick Beiser puts it: “Since Kant, philosophers had become preoccupied with two distinct but closely related issues: how to explain the possibility of knowledge, and how to account for the reality of the external world.” Beiser, German Idealism, 13.
- 33.
See Fichte’s Fundamental Principles of the Entire Science of Knowledge (Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre, 1794): “The self posits itself, and by virtue of this mere self-assertion it exists; and conversely, the self exists and posits its own existence by virtue of merely existing.” Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Fichte: Science of Knowledge with the First and Second Introductions, trans. Peter Heath and John Lachs (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970), 97. [“Das Ich setzt sich selbst, und es ist, vermöge dieses blossen Setzens durch sich selbst; und umgekehrt: das Ich ist, und es setzt sein Seyn, vermöge seines blossen Seyns.”] Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Sämtliche Werke, ed. J. H. Fichte (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965), 1:96.
- 34.
From Fichte’s Recension des Aenesidemus (published in the Jenaer Allgemeine Literaturzeiting in the Winter of 1794). Fichte, Sämtliche Werke 1:15. For the translation see J. G. Fichte, Introductions to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings (1797–1800), ed. and trans. Daniel Breazeale (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett, 1994), 556. Fichte was responding to K. L. Reinhold’s critique of Kant. For an exposition of Fichte’s struggles with Reinhold, see Beiser, German Idealism, 227–229.
- 35.
From Kant’s 1st Kritik (1781): “On the contrary, the transcendental conception of phenomena in space is a critical admonition that, in general, objects are quite unknown to us in themselves (daß uns die Gegenstände an sich gar nicht bekannt sein) and what we call outward objects, are nothing else but mere representations of our sensibility, whose form is space, but whose real correlate, the thing in itself, is not known by means of these representations, nor ever can be, but respecting which, in experience, no inquiry is ever made.” Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. J. M. D. Meiklejohn, ed. Jim Manis (Hazleton, PA: Pennsylvania State U, 2013), 49. For the original text, see Immanuel Kant, Werke in Zwölf Bänden, Werkausgabe, Ed. Wilhelm Weischedel. Vol. 3. (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1977), 76–77. The quotation from Fichte appears in the Second Introduction to the Science of Knowledge [Zweite Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre] (1797): Fichte, Sämtliche Werke 1:460. Briefly put, these two quotations sum up the problems Hölderlin and Schelling had with Kant and Fichte regarding materiality and nature.
- 36.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Biographia Literaria or Biographical Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions, ed. James Engell and W. Jackson Bate (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 158–159. In the Biographia Literaria, Coleridge is not content simply to disagree with certain Fichtean ideas but feels compelled to include his own little parody of them, which he calls a “burlesque on the Fichtean Egoismus.” Here the new “Teutonic God” (which Coleridge names Ego-Kai-Pan, a play on En Kai Pan) proclaims:
Verse
Verse I, I, I! I itself I The form and the substance, the what and the why, The when and the where, and the low and the high, The inside and outside, the earth and the sky, I, you, and he, and he, you and I, All souls and all bodies are I itself I! (Coleridge, Biographia, 159)
- 37.
For example, “The narrator is drawn in by the process of narrating and changes in the course of the novel” (my trans.). Lawrence Ryan, Hölderlins Hyperion: Exzentrische Bahn und Dichterberuf (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1965), 4.
- 38.
The most thorough investigation of intellectual intuition and German idealism is Xavier Tilliette’s Recherches sur l’intuition intellectuelle, de Kant à Hegel (1995), recently translated into German as Untersuchungen über die intellektuelle Anschauung von Kant bis Hegel. No English translation yet exists. According to Tilliette: “For Kant, however, the rejection of intellectual intuition and transcendental consciousness go hand in hand. We possess no intellectual intuition. We do not know the Dinge an sich, but ultimately only the phenomena …” (my trans.). Xavier Tilliette, Untersuchungen über die intellektuelle Anschauung von Kant Bis Hegel. Schellingiana vol. 26, trans. Susanne Schaper, ed. Lisa Egloff and Katia Hay (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 2015), 7.
- 39.
For an overview of Fichte’s use of the term intellectual intuition, see Beiser, German Idealism, 298–301. “The general meaning [Fichte] gives to this term is self-knowledge as a spontaneous, acting subject… When I have an intellectual intuition, I know myself as acting rather than acted on, as self-determining rather than determined.” Beiser, German Idealism, 298.
- 40.
Fichte, Sämtliche Werke, 1:10.
- 41.
On the religious origins of intellectual intuition, as well as its association with vision, an intellectual form of seeing, see Tilliette, Untersuchungen, 8–11. Tilliette particularly stresses the influence of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464) and his notion of visio intellectualis.
- 42.
Michael Vater, “Introduction: The Odyssey of Consciousness,” in Schelling, F. W. J. System of Transcendental Idealism (1800), trans. Peter Heath (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), xiv.
- 43.
Fichte, Science of Knowledge, 38. The quotation is from The Second Introduction to the Science of Knowledge [Zweite Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre, für Leser, die schon ein philosophisches System haben] (published in the Philosophisches Journal, 1797): Fichte, Sämtliche Werke, 1:463.
- 44.
As Tilliette puts it: “Self-consciousness is the proof of [the existence of] intellectual intuition.” Tilliette, Untersuchungen, 71.
- 45.
See Tilliette, Untersuchungen, 104.
- 46.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 12. Hölderlin, Werke, 3:8–9.
- 47.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:184.
- 48.
I cannot help but wonder if Fre ud has Hölderlin in mind (among others) when in An Outline of Psychoanalysis (Abriß der Psychoanalyse) he dismisses the notion of eros as the longing for reunion with the lost half of primordial wholeness (Wiedervereinigung) with the comment, “Poets have fantasized along these lines (Dichter haben Ähnliches phantasiert).” Sigmund Freud, Gesammelte Werke chronologisch geordnet, 18 vols., ed. Anna Freud, et al. (London: Imago Publishing, 1948), 17:71.
- 49.
The commonly accepted title, “Urteil und Sein (Judgement and Being),” for this handwritten fragment comes from Friedrich Beissner, who argues that it was produced in Jena “in the beginning of 1795.” See Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:402. Based on an analysis of the handwriting, Dieter Henrich dates the fragment to April 1795. See Dieter Henrich, “Hölderlins Fragment ‘Urteil und Sein.’” Hölderlin Jahrbuch 14 (1965/1966), 76. For an English translation of Henrich ’s essay, see Henrich, Course of Remembrance, 71–89. Written on a piece of paper torn from another book (Beissner fantasizes that it is a flyleaf from Fichte’s WL), it was first discovered in 1930 and not published until 1961.
- 50.
For Beissner’s commentary on “Urteil und Sein” see Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:402–403.
- 51.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216.
- 52.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216.
- 53.
Henrich comments on the strength and audacity of “Urteil und Sein,” particularly on its idea of Being as an original unity, an idea that seems to arise so suddenly early in 1795: “It represents a self-confident assault on Fichte’s fundamental idea. How can it have been written by a poet who up to now has worked entirely within Kant’s conceptual framework and only a little beyond his formulated doctrine, and who had scarcely made his way into the widely admired teaching of Fichte?” Henrich, Course of Remembrance, 79. Henrich argues that Hölderlin was not working in a vacuum but was actually influenced by the fruitful ethos of Jena at the time, particularly stimulated through sharing ideas with his friend Isaac von Sinclair (1775–1815).
- 54.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216.
- 55.
Fichte, Sämtliche Werke, 1:463.
- 56.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216. In this period Hölderlin and Schelling employ both spellings: intellektual and intellektuell (sometimes printed as “intellectuell”). I follow the standard practice of translating Anschauung as “intuition,” which in this context refers to the individual’s perception and representation of the data of experience.
- 57.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216–217.
- 58.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:181.
- 59.
Hölderlin is likely aware that this squaring of the circle (misurar lo cerchio) is the final simile of Dante’s entire Comedia. Dante feels himself, as he contemplates the final divine vision, to be like the geometer who tries, but can never quite measure or square the circle:
Qual è ‘l geometra che tutto s’ affige
per misurar lo cerchio, e non ritrova,
pensando, quel principio ond’ elli indige:
Like the geometer who is all intent to square
the circle and cannot find, for all his thought, the
principle he needs:
(Paradiso, Canto 33, lines 133–135.) Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, trans. Robert M. During, ed. Robert M. During and Ronald L. Martinez (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 666–667.
- 60.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 6.1:203.
- 61.
As David Krell puts it, “Urtheil Hölderlin takes to be Ur-theilung, the primeval sundering or dividing of consciousness and its object that he hopes an intellectual intuition will heal.” David Farrell Krell. Three Ends of the Absolute: Schelling, Hölderlin, Novalis (Albany: SUNY Press, 2004), 141.
- 62.
From “Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood” (lines 64–65). William Wordsworth, Wordsworth’s Poetical Works, ed. Thomas Hutchinson and Ernest de Selincourt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 460.
- 63.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:248.
- 64.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:249.
- 65.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 13. Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:9.
- 66.
Lawrence Ryan, “Hyperion oder der Eremit in Griechenland,” in Hölderlin-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung, ed. Johann Kreuzer (Stuttgart: Metzler, 2002), 178. As Marshall Brown points out, the phrase “eccentric path ” is not unique to Hölderlin. For more on the history of the concept, see Marshall Brown, “The Eccentric Path,” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 77, no. 1 (January, 1978), 112.
- 67.
Hölderlin, Sämtliche Werke, 3:250.
- 68.
Hölderlin, Hyperion, 106–107. Hölderlin, Werke, 3:79.
- 69.
Hölderlin, Essays and Letters, 37. Hölderlin, Werke, 4.1:216.
- 70.
Schelling, System of Transcendental Idealism (Heath trans.), 232. Schelling, Werke, 3:629.
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Davis, W.S. (2018). Intellectual Intuition: With Hölderlin, “Lost in the Wide Blue”. In: Romanticism, Hellenism, and the Philosophy of Nature. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91292-9_2
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