Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract is organized into regions and layers with structural and functional peculiarities. The tract which begins from the mouth, extending to the anus, is comprised of different layers and tissues. The tissues, composed of different cells, play diverse roles and functions and they constitute the chief determinants of the state of GI functioning. Accessory organs of the GI tract (including the mesentery, which is currently regarded as an organ as well as its structural and functional unit) are discussed. In this chapter, the structural and functional organization of the entire GI tract is presented.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- CGRP:
-
Calcitonin gene-related peptide
- EA:
-
Esophageal atresia
- GI:
-
Gastrointestinal
- ICCs:
-
Interstitial cells of Cajal
- MAP:
-
Mitogen-activated protein
- TEF:
-
Tracheoesophageal fistula
Bibliography
Kararli TT (1995) Comparison of the gastrointestinal anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of humans and commonly used laboratory animals. Biopharm Drug Dispos 16(5):351–380
Van de Graaff KM (1986) Anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal tract. Pediatr Infect Dis 5(1):S11–S16
Gelberg HB (2014) Comparative anatomy, physiology, and mechanisms of disease production of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Toxicol Pathol 42(1):54–66
Kimmey MB, Martin RW, Haggitt RC, Wang KY, Franklin DW, Silverstein FE (1989) Histologic correlates of gastrointestinal ultrasound images. Gastroenterology 96(2 Pt 1):433–441
Spitz L (2007) Oesophageal atresia. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2:24
Sunitha T, Prasoona KR, Kumari TM, Srinadh B, Deepika MLN, Aruna R, Jyothy A (2017) Risk factors for congenital anomalies in high risk pregnant women: a large study from South India. Egypt J Med Hum Genet 18(1):79–85
Sarkar S, Patra C, Dasgupta MK, Nayek K, Karmakar PR (2013) Prevalence of congenital anomalies in neonates and associated risk factors in a tertiary care hospital in Eastern India. J Clin Neonatol 2(3):131–134
Jiang X, Xu G, Shen L, Wu J, Chen H, Wang Y (2014) Influential factors on congenital gastrointestinal malformation: a hospital-based case-control study. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 35(1):81–84
Mashuda F, Zuechner A, Chalya PL, Kidenya BR, Manyama M (2014) Pattern and factors associated with congenital anomalies among young infants admitted at Bugando medical centre, Mwanza Tanzania. BMC Res Notes 7:195
El-Helaly M, Abdel-Elah K, Haussein A, Shalaby H (2011) Paternal occupational exposures and the risk of congenital malformations—a case-control study. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 24(2):218–227
Okamoto T, Takamizawa S, Arai H, Bitoh Y, Nakao M, Yokoi A, Nishijima E (2009) Esophageal atresia: prognostic classification revisited. Surgery 145(6):675–681
Poenaru D, Laberge JM, Neilson IR, Guttman FM (1993) A new prognostic classification for esophageal atresia. Surgery 113(4):426–432
Pinheiro PFM, e Silva ACS, Pereira RM (2012) Current knowledge on esophageal atresia. World J Gastroenterol 18(28):3662–3672
Shaw-Smith C (2006) Oesophageal atresia, tracheo-oesophageal fistula, and the VACTERL association: review of genetics and epidemiology. J Med Genet 43:545–554
Morgan RD, O’Callaghan JM, Wagener S, Grant HW, Lakhoo K (2012) Surgical correction of tracheo-oesophageal fistula and oesophageal atresia in infants with VACTERL association: a retrospective case-control study. Pediatr Surg Int 28(10):967–970
Carli D, Garagnani L, Lando M, Fairplay T, Bernasconi S, Landi A, Percesepe A (2014) VACTERL (vertebral defects, anal atresia, tracheoesophageal fistula with esophageal atresia, cardiac defects, renal and limb anomalies) association: disease spectrum in 25 patients ascertained for their upper limb involvement. J Pediatr 164(3):458–462 (e1–e2)
La Placa S, Giuffrè M, Gangemi A, Di Noto S, Matina F, Nociforo F et al (2013) Esophageal atresia in newborns: a wide spectrum from the isolated forms to a full VACTERL phenotype? Ital J Pediatr 39:45
Koçak H, Ozaydin E, Köse G, Marcelis CL, Kamsteeg EJ, Ceylaner S (2009) A Feingold syndrome case with previously undescribed features and a new mutation. Genet Couns 20(3):261–267
Büttiker V, Wojtulewicz J, Wilson M (2000) Imperforate anus in Feingold syndrome. Am J Med Genet 92(3):166–169
Layman-Pleet L, Jackson CC, Chou S, Boycott KM (2007) Feingold syndome: a rare but important cause of syndromic tracheoesophageal fistula. J Pediatr Surg 42(9):E1–E3
Versteegh HP, van Rooij IALM, Levitt MA, Sloots CEJ, Wijnen RMH, de Blaauw I (2013) Long-term follow-up of functional outcome in patients with a cloacal malformation: a systematic review. J Pediatr Surg 48:2343–2350
Rintala RJ, Sistonen S, Pakarinen MP (2009) Outcome of esophageal atresia beyond childhood. Sem Pediatr Surg 18(1):50–56
Terui K, Saito T, Mitsunaga T, Nakata M, Yoshida H (2015) Endoscopic management for congenital esophageal stenosis: a systematic review. World J Gastrointest Endosc 7(3):183–191
Stylopoulos N, Rattner DW (2005) The history of hiatal hernia surgery: from Bowditch to laparoscopy. Ann Surg 241(1):185–193
Lord RV, DeMeester SR, Peters JH, Hagen JA, Elyssnia D, Sheth CT, DeMeester TR (2009) Hiatal hernia, lower esophageal sphincter incompetence, and effectiveness of Nissen fundoplication in the spectrum of gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Gastrointest Surg 13(4):602–610
Kluth D, Fiegel H (2003) The embryology of the foregut. Semin Pediatr Surg 12(1):3–9
Kluth D, Steding G, Seidl W (1987) The embryology of foregut malformations. J Pediatr Surg 22(5):389–393
Metzger R, Wachowiak R, Kluth D (2011) Embryology of the early foregut. Sem Pediatr Surg 20(3):136–144
Felix JF, de Jong EM, Torfs CP, de Klein A, Rottier RJ, Tibboel D (2009) Genetic and environmental factors in the etiology of esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula: an overview of the current concepts. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 85(9):747–754
Spilde TL, Bhatia AM, Mehta S, Ostlie DJ, Hembree MJ, Preuett BL et al (2003) Defective sonic hedgehog signaling in esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula. Surgery 134(2):345–350
Spilde TL, Bhatia AM, Marosky JK, Preuett B, Kobayashi H, Hembree MJ et al (2003) Fibroblast growth factor signaling in the developing tracheoesophageal fistula. J Pediatr Surg 38(3):474–477
Chuong C-M, Patel N, Lin J, Jung H-S, Widelitz RB (2000) Sonic hedgehog signaling pathway in vertebrate epithelial appendage morphogenesis: perspectives in development and evolution. Cell Mol Life Sci 57(12):1672–1681
Warburton D, Bellusci S, De Langhe S, Del Moral P-M, Fleury V, Mailleux A et al (2005) Molecular mechanisms of early lung specification and branching morphogenesis. Pediatr Res 57:26R–37R
Jacobs IJ, Que J (2013) Genetic and cellular mechanisms of the formation of esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistula. Dis Esophagus 26(4):356–358
Kunisaki SM, Bruch SW, Hirschl RB, Mychaliska GB, Treadwell MC, Coran AG (2014) The diagnosis of fetal esophageal atresia and its implications on perinatal outcome. Pediatr Surg Int 30(10):971–977
Langer JC, Hussain H, Khan A, Minkes RK, Gray D, Siegel M, Ryan G (2001) Prenatal diagnosis of esophageal atresia using sonography and magnetic resonance imaging. J Pediatr Surg 36(5):804–807
Véronique H-D, Julien B (2011) Ultrasound and MRI prenatal diagnosis of esophageal atresia: effect on management. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 52:S9–S11
Chang EY, Chang HK, Han SJ, Choi SH, Hwang EH, Oh J-T (2012) Clinical characteristics and treatment of esophageal atresia: a single institutional experience. J Korean Surg Soc 83(1):43–49
Kovesi T, Rubin S (2004) Long-term complications of congenital esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest 126(3):915–925
Kovesi T (2013) Long-term respiratory complications of congenital esophageal atresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula: an update. Dis Esophagus 26(4):413–416
Shah R, Varjavandi V, Krishnan U (2015) Predictive factors for complications in children with esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistula. Dis Esophagus 28(3):216–223
Spitz L, Kiely E, Brereton RJ, Drake D (1993) Management of esophageal atresia. World J Surg 17(3):296–300
Michaud L, Coutenier F, Podevin G, Bonnard A, Becmeur F, Khen-Dunlop N et al (2013) Characteristics and management of congenital esophageal stenosis: findings from a multicenter study. Orphanet J Rare Dis 8:186
Serrao E, Santos A, Gaivao A, Tavares A, Ferreira S (2010) Congenital esophageal stenosis: a rare case of dysphagia. J Radiol Case Rep 4:8–14
Rastogi R, Majid A, Singh VP, Joon P, Gupta Y (2016) Congenital esophageal stenosis: a rare case of childhood dysphasia. J Gastrointest Dig Syst 6:2
Yousef MM, Yantiss RK, Baker SP, Banner BF (2006) Duodenal intraepithelial lymphocytes in inflammatory disorders of the esophagus and stomach. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 4(5):631–634
Pereverzev VA, Lobanok LM (2014) Physiology of digestion. In: Kubarko AI (ed) Normal physiology. In two parts. Part 1. Visheishaya Shkola, Minsk, Belarus
Nikitina OS, Welcome MO, Pereverzev VA (2016) Human anatomy and physiology. In: 2 parts. Part 1. Belarusian State Medical University Press, Minsk
Kim SK, Cho CD, Wojtowycz AR (2008) The ligament of treitz (the suspensory ligament of the duodenum): anatomic and radiographic correlation. Abdom Imaging 33(4):395–397
Jabbour SK, Hashem SA, Bosch W, Kim TK, Finkelstein SE, Anderson BM et al (2014) Upper abdominal normal organ contouring guidelines and atlas: a radiation therapy oncology group consensus. Pract Radiat Oncol 4(2):82–89
Meyers MA (1995) Treitz redux: the ligament of treitz revisited. Abdom Imaging 20(5):421–424
Shafik A, El Sibai O, Shafik AA, Shafik IA (2006) Demonstration of a physiologic sphincter at duodeno-jejunal junction. Front Biosci 11:2790–2794
Saenko VF, Virchenko SB, Kucherenko TL, Ettinger AP, BelianskiÄ LS, Llu Markulan (1990) The role of the duodenojejunal junction in regulating the evacuatory function of the duodenum. Fiziol Zh 36(4):56–63
Virchenko SB, Sayenko VF, Kucherenko TL, Tsedik NN, Elbrønd H, Djurhuus JC, Funch-Jensen P (1993) The duodenojejunal junction and treitz ligament in the regulation of duodenal emptying. Scand J Gastroenterol 28(9):753–759
Hamilton KL, Butt AG (2013) Glucose transport into everted sacs of the small intestine of mice. Adv Physiol Educ 37(4):415–426
Matsumoto S, Miyatani H, Yoshida Y (2015) Future directions of duodenal endoscopic submucosal dissection. World J Gastrointest Endosc 7(4):389–395
Mowat AM, Agace WW (2014) Regional specialization within the intestinal immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 14:667–685
Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Lin EH, Crane CH (2003) Surgical anatomy. In: Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, Bast RC Jr, Gansler TS, Holland JF, Frei E III (eds) Holland-frei cancer medicine, 6th edn. Hamilton, ON, BC Decker
Sadahiro S, Ohmura T, Yamada Y, Saito T, Taki Y (1992) Analysis of length and surface area of each segment of the large intestine according to age, sex and physique. Surg Radiol Anat 14(3):251–257
Camilleri M, Ford MJ (1998) Colonic sensorimotor physiology in health, and its alteration in constipation and diarrhoeal disorders. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 12:287–302
Liao D-H, Zhao J-B, Gregersen H (2009) Gastrointestinal tract modelling in health and disease. World J Gastroenterol 15(2):169–176
Liao D, Frøkjaer JB, Yang J, Zhao J, Drewes AM, Gilja OH, Gregersen H (2006) Three-dimensional surface model analysis in the gastrointestinal tract. World J Gastroenterol 12(18):2870–2875
Shen L (2009) Functional morphology of the gastrointestinal tract. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 337:1–35
Balbi V, Ciarletta P (2013) Morpho-elasticity of intestinal villi. J R Soc Interface 10(82):20130109
Kvietys PR, Granger DN (2010) Role of intestinal lymphatics in interstitial volume regulation and transmucosal water transport. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1207(1):E29–E43
Howard ER (2013) Joseph Lister: his contributions to early experimental physiology. Notes Rec R Soc Lond 67(3):191–198
Spencer NJ, Dinning PG, Brookes SJ, Costa M (2016) Insights into the mechanisms underlying colonic motor patterns. J Physiol 594(15):4099–4116
Eastwood PR, Katagiri S, Shepherd KL, Hillman DR (2007) Modulation of upper and lower esophageal sphincter tone during sleep. Sleep Med 8(2):135–143
Lang IM, Shaker R (1997) Anatomy and physiology of the upper esophageal sphincter. Am J Med 103(5A):50S–55S
Mittal RK, Liu J (2005) Flow across the gastro-esophageal junction: lessons from the sleeve sensor on the nature of anti-reflux barrier. Neurogastroenterol Motil 17(2):187–190
Dj Saranović, Ilić N, Stafanović Z, Kasiković M (1991) Colonic sphincters—Hirsch’s sphincter. Srp Arh Celok Lek 119(5–6):166–168
Gagliardi JA, Radvany MG, Kilkenny TE, Russo RD Jr (1994) Colonic sphincters revisited: simulators of organic disease. Hawaii Med J 53(10):278–282
Costa M, Brookes S, Hennig G (2000) Anatomy and physiology of the enteric nervous system. Gut 47(4):iv15–iv19
Odegaard S, Nesje LB, Hoff DA, Gilja OH, Gregersen H (2006) Morphology and motor function of the gastrointestinal tract examined with endosonography. World J Gastroenterol 12(18):2858–2863
Goyal RK (2000) Targets of enteric motor neurones: smooth muscle cells. Gut 47(4):iv38–39; discussion iv52
Liao D, Lelic D, Gao F, Drewes AM, Gregersen H (2008) Biomechanical functional and sensory modelling of the gastrointestinal tract. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci 366(1879):3281–3299
Dahm R (2010) From discovering to understanding. EMBO Rep 11(3):153–160
Takaki M (2003) Gut pacemaker cells: the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). J Smooth Muscle Res 39(5):137–161
Al-Shboul OA (2013) The importance of interstitial cells of Cajal in the gastrointestinal tract. Saudi J Gastroenterol 19(1):3–15
Huizinga JD, Chen J-H, Mikkelsen HB, Wang X-Y, Parsons SP, Zhu YF (2013) Interstitial cells of Cajal, from structure to function. Front Neurosci 7:43
Pakurar AS, Bigbee JW (2004) Digital histology: an interactive CD atlas with review text. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey
Hosseini SV, Abbasi HR, Rezvani H, Vasei M, Ashraf MJ (2009) Comparison between gallbladder serosal and mucosal patch in duodenal injuries repair in dogs. J Invest Surg 22(2):148–153
Oliphant R, Gardiner S, Reid R, McPeake J, Porteous C (2007) Glomus tumour of the ascending colon. J Clin Pathol 60(7):846
American Joint Committee on Cancer (2010) Colon and rectum. In: AJCC cancer staging manual, 7th edn. Springer, New York
Amrani S, Polcino M, Rodriguez-Bigas M, Chu QD (2015) Colon cancer. In: Chu Q, Gibbs J, Zibari G (eds) Surgical oncology. Springer, New York
Gartner LP, Hiatt JL, Strum JM (2003) Board review series. Cell biology and histology, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA
Barrett KE (2012) Epithelial biology in the gastrointestinal system: insights into normal physiology and disease pathogenesis. J Physiol 590(Pt 3):419–420
Nagpal R, Patel A, Gibson MC (2008) Epithelial topology. BioEssays 30(3):260–266
Bellmann S, Carlander D, Fasano A, Momcilovic D, Scimeca JA, Waldman WJ et al (2015) Mammalian gastrointestinal tract parameters modulating the integrity, surface properties, and absorption of food-relevant nanomaterials. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 7:609–622
Bullen TF, Forrest S, Campbell F, Dodson AR, Hershman MJ, Pritchard DM et al (2006) Characterization of epithelial cell shedding from human small intestine. Lab Invest 86:1052–1063
Rao JN, Wang J-Y (2010) Regulation of gastrointestinal mucosal growth. Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences, San Rafael, CA
San Roman AK, Shivdasani RA (2011) Boundaries, junctions and transitions in the gastrointestinal tract. Exp Cell Res 317(19):2711–2718
Shoemark A, Burgoyne T, Dixon M, Luther P, Hogg C (2012) Three dimensional ultrastructure of human respiratory cilia in health and disease. Cilia 1(1):47
Chilvers M, Rutman A, O’Callaghan C (2003) Functional analysis of cilia and ciliated epithelial ultrastructure in healthy children and young adults. Thorax 58(4):333–338
Roffler B, Fäh A, Sauter SN, Hammon HM, Gallmann P, Brem G, Blum JW (2003) Intestinal morphology, epithelial cell proliferation, and absorptive capacity in neonatal calves fed milk-born insulin-like growth factor-I or a colostrum extract. J Dairy Sci 86(5):1797–1806
Villasenor A, Chong DC, Henkemeyer M, Cleaver O (2010) Epithelial dynamics of pancreatic branching morphogenesis. Development 137:4295–4305
Amano O, Mizobe K, Ya Bando, Sakiyama K (2012) Anatomy and histology of rodent and human major salivary glands—overview of the Japan salivary gland society-sponsored workshop. Acta Histochem Cytochem 45(5):241–250
Redman RS (2008) On approaches to the functional restoration of salivary glands damaged by radiation therapy for head and neck cancer, with a review of related aspects of salivary gland morphology and development. Biotech Histochem 83(3):103–130
Nolte T, Brander-Weber P, Dangler C, Deschl U, Elwell MR, Greaves P et al (2016) Nonproliferative and proliferative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas and salivary glands of the rat and mouse. J Toxicol Pathol 29(1):1S–125S
Bohórquez DV, Liddle RA (2015) The gut connectome: making sense of what you eat. J Clin Invest 125(3):888–890
Thelen K, Coboeken K, Willmann S, Burghaus R, Dressman JB, Lippert J (2011) Evolution of a detailed physiological model to simulate the gastrointestinal transit and absorption process in humans, Part 1: oral solutions. J Pharm Sci 100(12):5324–5345
Helander HF, Fändriks L (2014) Surface area of the digestive tract—revisited. Scand J Gastroenterol 49(6):681–689
Alexander JS, Ganta VC, Jordan PA, Witte MH (2010) Gastrointestinal lymphatics in health and disease. Pathophysiology 17(4):315–335
Lim S-S, Low FN (1988) Morphological changes in the developing alimentary canal: a review by scanning electron microscopy. In: Motta PM, Fujita H, Correr S (eds) Ultrastructure of the digestive tract. Electron microscopy in biology and medicine (current topics in ultrastructural research), vol 4. Springer, Boston, MA
Von Kölliker A (1968/1817–1905) Würzburger histologist. JAMA 206(9):2111–2112
De Santa PB, Van Den Brink GR, Roberts DJ (2003) Development and differentiation of the intestinal epithelium. Cell Mol Life Sci 60(7):1322–1332
Madara JL, Wolf JL, Trier JS (1982) Structural features of the rat small intestinal microvillus membrane in acute experimental diabetes. Digest Dis Sci 27(9):801–806
Walton KD, Kolterud Å, Czerwinski MJ, Bell MJ, Prakash A, Kushwaha J et al (2012) Hedgehog-responsive mesenchymal clusters direct patterning and emergence of intestinal villi. PNAS 109(39):15817–15822
Vieira WA, Pretorius E (2010) The impact of asthma on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). J Asthma Allergy 3:123–130
Yen TH, Wright NA (2006) The gastrointestinal tract stem cell niche. Stem Cell Rev 2(3):203–212
Fennerty MB (1999) Tissue staining (chromoscopy) of the gastrointestinal tract. Can J Gastroenterol 13(5):423–429
Wong WM, Wright NA (1999) Cell proliferation in gastrointestinal mucosa. J Clin Pathol 52(5):321–333
Tappenden KA (2006) Mechanisms of enteral nutrient-enhanced intestinal adaptation. Gastroenterology 130(2):S93–S99
Claus R, Günthner D, Letzguß H (2007) Effects of feeding fat-coated butyrate on mucosal morphology and function in the small intestine of the pig. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 91(7–8):312–318
Wang J (2012) Pathologic aspects of tumors of gastrointestinal tract in the era of personalized medicine. J Gastrointest Oncol 3(3):151–152
Rubin E, Farber JL (1990) Environmental diseases of the digestive system. Med Clin North Am 74(2):413–424
JimÉnez RM, Connolly S, Blickman JG, Hoogeveen YL (2008) Accessory organs of digestion. In: Devos AS, Blickman JG (eds) Radiological imaging of the digestive tract in infants and children. Part of the series medical radiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Coffey JC, O’Leary DP (2016) The mesentery: structure, function, and role in disease. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 1(3):238–247
Sundler F (2004) GI tract, general anatomy (cells). Encyclopedia of Endocrine Diseases
Soffers JH, Hikspoors JP, Mekonen HK, Koehler SE, Lamers WH (2015) The growth pattern of the human intestine and its mesentery. BMC Dev Biol 15:31
Kachlik D, Baca V, Stingl J (2010) The spatial arrangement of the human large intestinal wall blood circulation. J Anat 216(3):335–343
Jedrzejewski KS, Cendrowska I, Okraszewska E (2002) Evaluation of several methods used in anatomical investigations of the blood and lymphatic vessels. Folia Morphol (Warsz) 61(2):63–69
Mutsaers SE (2004) The mesothelial cell. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 36(1):9–16
Jansson L, Barbu A, Bodin B, Carlsson P-O (2016) Pancreatic islet blood flow and its measurement. Upsala J Med Sci 121(2):1–15
Granger DN, Holm L, Kvietys P (2015) The gastrointestinal circulation: physiology and pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 5(3):1541–1583
Parks DA, Jacobson ED (1985) Physiology of the splanchnic circulation. Arch Intern Med 145(7):1278–1281
Clemmesen O (2002) Splanchnic circulation and metabolism in patients with acute liver failure. Dan Med Bull 49(3):177–193
Mukhtar A, Dabbous H (2016) Modulation of splanchnic circulation: role in perioperative management of liver transplant patients. World J Gastroenterol 22(4):1582–1592
Ackland G, Grocott MPW, Mythen MG (2000) Understanding gastrointestinal perfusion in critical care: so near, and yet so far. Crit Care 4(5):269–281
Kvietys PR (2010) The gastrointestinal circulation. Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences, San Rafael, CA
Walker TG (2009) Mesenteric vasculature and collateral pathways. Semin Intervent Radiol 26(3):167–174
Graf O, Boland GW, Kaufman JA, Warshaw AL, Fernandez del Castillo C, Mueller PR (1997) Anatomic variants of mesenteric veins: depiction with helical CT venography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 168(5):1209–1213
Kim PTW, Klintmalm GB (2016) Importance of hepatic flows in liver transplantation. J Hepatol Gastroint Dis 2:2
Eipel C, Ke Abshagen, Vollmar B (2010) Regulation of hepatic blood flow: the hepatic arterial buffer response revisited. World J Gastroenterol 16(48):6046–6057
Matsuura T, Gad MZ, Harrison EH, Ross AC (1997) Lecithin: retinol acyltransferase and retinyl ester hydrolase activities are differentially regulated by retinoids and have distinct distributions between hepatocyte and nonparenchymal cell fractions of rat liver. J Nutr 127(2):218–224
Kumar A, Tripathi A, Jain S (2011) Extracorporeal bioartificial liver for treating acute liver diseases. J Extra Corpor Technol 43(4):195–206
Tabata K, Yamaoka K, Fukuyama T, Nakagawa T (1995) Evaluation of intestinal absorption into the portal system in enterohepatic circulation by measuring the difference in portal-venous blood concentrations of diclofenac. Pharm Res 12(6):880–883
Ponziani FR, Zocco MA, Campanale C, Rinninella E, Tortora A, Di Maurizio L et al (2010) Portal vein thrombosis: insight into physiopathology, diagnosis, and treatment. World J Gastroenterol 16(2):143–155
Douard R, Chevallier JM, Delmas V, Cugnenc PH (2006) Clinical interest of digestive arterial trunk anastomoses. Surg Radiol Anat 28(3):219–227
Geboes K, Geboes KP, Maleux G (2001) Vascular anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 15(1):1–14
Vandamme JP, Bonte J (1985) The branches of the celiac trunk. Acta Anat (Basel) 122(2):110–114
Nayak SR, Prabhu LV, Krishnamurthy A, Ganesh Kumar C, Ramanathan LA, Acharya A, Prasad SA (2008) Additional branches of celiac trunk and its clinical significance. Rom J Morphol Embryol 49(2):247–249
Lovisetto F, De Lorenzi FG, Stancampiano P, Corradini C, De Cesare F, Geraci O, Manzi M, Arceci F (2012) Thrombosis of celiacomesenteric trunk: report of a case. World J Gastroenterol 18(29):3917–3920
Yan J, Nagasawa Y, Nakano M, Hitomi J (2014) Origin of the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries in a common trunk: description of a rare vessel variation of the celiacomesenteric trunk with a literature review. Okajimas Folia Anat Jpn 91(2):45–48
He H, Long Y, Liu D, Wang X, Zhou X (2015) Clinical classification of tissue perfusion based on the central venous oxygen saturation and the peripheral perfusion index. Crit Care 19(1):330
Pieńkowska J, Gwoździewicz K, Skrobisz-Balandowska K, Marek I, Kostro J, Szurowska E et al (2016) Perfusion-CT—can we predict acute pancreatitis outcome within the first 24 hours from the onset of symptoms? PLoS ONE 11(1):e0146965
Hulten L, Jodal M, Lindhagen J, Lundgren O (1976) Blood flow in the small intestine of cat and man as analyzed by an inert gas washout technique. Gastroenterology 70(1):45–51
Hultén L, Lindhagen J, Lundgren O, Fasth S, Ahrén C (1977) Regional intestinal blood flow in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 72(3):388–396
Hasibeder W (2010) Gastrointestinal microcirculation: still a mystery? Br J Anaesth 105(4):393–396
Someya N, Endo MY, Fukuba Y, Hayashi N (2008) Blood flow responses in celiac and superior mesenteric arteries in the initial phase of digestion. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 294(6):R1790–R1796
Matheson PJ, Wilson MA, Garrison RN (2000) Regulation of intestinal blood flow. J Surg Res 93:182–196
de Oliveira EP, Burini RC, Jeukendrup A (2014) Gastrointestinal complaints during exercise: prevalence, etiology, and nutritional recommendations. Sports Med 44:79–85
van Wijck K, Lenaerts K, van Loon LJC, Peters WHM, Buurman WA, Dejong CHC (2011) Exercise-induced splanchnic hypoperfusion results in gut dysfunction in healthy men. PLoS ONE 6(7):e22366
Schumacker PT, Samsel RW (1989) Oxygen delivery and uptake by peripheral tissues: physiology and pathophysiology. Crit Care Clin 5(2):255–269
Guzman JA, Lacoma FJ, Kruse JA (1998) Relationship between systemic oxygen supply dependency and gastric intramucosal PCO2 during progressive hemorrhage. J Trauma 44:696–700
Sabnis A, Carrasco R, Liu SX, Yan X, Managlia E, Chou PM et al (2015) Intestinal vascular endothelial growth factor is decreased in necrotizing enterocolitis. Neonatology 107(3):191–198
Hu D, Cai D, Rangan AV (2012) Blood vessel adaptation with fluctuations in capillary flow distribution. PLoS ONE 7(9):e45444
Stan RV, Tse D, Deharvengt SJ, Smits NC, Xu Y, Luciano MR et al (2012) The diaphragms of fenestrated endothelia—gatekeepers of vascular permeability and blood composition. Dev Cell 23(6):1203–1218
Satchell SC, Braet F (2009) Glomerular endothelial cell fenestrations: an integral component of the glomerular filtration barrier. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 296(5):F947–F956
Hallmann R, Horn N, Selg M, Wendler O, Pausch F, Sorokin LM (2005) Expression and function of laminins in the embryonic and mature vasculature. Physiol Rev 85(3):979–1000
Benett HS, Luft JH, Hampton JC (1959) Morphological classifications of vertebrate blood capillaries. Am J Physiol 196:381–390
Sarin H (2010) Physiologic upper limits of pore size of different blood capillary types and another perspective on the dual pore theory of microvascular permeability. J Angiogenes Res 2:14
Henderson JR, Moss MC (1985) A morphometric study of the endocrine and exocrine capillaries of the pancreas. Q J Exp Physiol 70(3):347–356
Aharinejad S, Böck P (1994) Identification of fenestrated capillary segments in microvascular corrosion casts of the rat exocrine pancreas. Scanning 16(4):209–214
Strell C, Entschladen F (2008) Extravasation of leukocytes in comparison to tumor cells. Cell Commun Signal 6:10
Aird WC (2007) Phenotypic heterogeneity of the endothelium: I. Structure, function and mechanisms. Circ Res 100:158–173
Pries AR, Kuebler WM (2006) Normal endothelium. In: Moncada S, Higgs A (eds) Handbook of pharmacology: the vascular endothelium
Aoyagi T, Koshimizu T, Tanoue A (2009) Vasopressin regulation of blood pressure and volume: findings from V1a receptor–deficient mice. Kidney Int 76(10):1035–1039
Gordan R, Gwathmey JK, Xie L-H (2015) Autonomic and endocrine control of cardiovascular function. World J Cardiol 7(4):204–214
Richardson PD (1982) Physiological regulation of the hepatic circulation. Fed Proc 41(6):2111–2116
Carlton LD, Pollack GM, Brouwer KL (1996) Physiologic pharmacokinetic modeling of gastrointestinal blood flow as a rate-limiting step in the oral absorption of digoxin: implications for patients with congestive heart failure receiving epoprostenol. J Pharm Sci 85(5):473–477
Mukhtar A, Dabbous H (2016) Modulation of splanchnic circulation: role in perioperative management of liver transplant patients. World J Gastroenterol 22(4):1582–1592
Balaram SK, Markham J, DeRose JJ (2008) Minimally invasive perfusion techniques. In: Mongero LB, Beck JR (eds) On bypass: current cardiac surgery. Humana Press, NY
Ruffolo DC (1998) Gastric tonometry: early warning of tissue hypoperfusion. Crit Care Nurs Q 21(3):26–32
Marshall AP, West SH (2004) Gastric tonometry and monitoring gastrointestinal perfusion: using research to support nursing practice. Nurs Crit Care 9(3):123–133
Eachempati SR, Barie PS (1999) Minimally invasive and noninvasive diagnosis and therapy in critically ill and injured patients. Arch Surg 134(11):1189–1196
Lima A, Bakker J (2006) Noninvasive monitoring of peripheral perfusion. In: Applied physiology in intensive care medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Sarkaria IS, Bains MS, Finley DJ, Adusumilli PS, Huang J, Rusch VW et al (2014) Intraoperative near-infrared fluorescence imaging as an adjunct to robotic assisted minimally invasive esophagectomy. Innovations (Phila) 9(5):391–393
Fikfak V, Gaur P, Kima MP (2016) Endoscopic evaluation of gastric conduit perfusion in minimally invasive Ivor Lewis esophagectomy. Int J Surg Case Rep 19:112–114
Zehetner J, DeMeester SR, Alicuben ET, Oh DS, Lipham JC, Hagen JA, DeMeester TR (2015) Intraoperative assessment of perfusion of the gastric graft and correlation with anastomotic leaks after esophagectomy. Ann Surg 262(1):74–78
Otte JA, Geelkerken RH, Huisman AB, Kolkman JJ (2007) What Is the best diagnostic approach for chronic gastrointestinal ischemia [quest]. Am J Gastroenterol 102:2005–2010
Atef HM, Fattah SA, Gaffer MEA, Al Rahman AA (2013) Perfusion index versus non-invasive hemodynamic parameters during insertion of i-gel, classic laryngeal mask airway and endotracheal tube. Indian J Anaesth 57(2):156–162
Jeng EI, Gravenstein N, Klodell CT (2017) Perfusion index: an indicator of success during endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis. Ann Thorac Surg 104(2):426–430
Lima A, Bakker J (2005) Noninvasive monitoring of peripheral perfusion. Intensive Care Med 31(10):1316–1326
Rovenská E, Rovenský J (2011) Lymphatic vessels: structure and function. IMAJ 13:762–768
Breslin JW (2014) Mechanical forces and lymphatic transport. Microvasc Res 96:46–54
Gashev AA (2002) Physiologic aspects of lymphatic contractile function: current perspectives. Ann N Y Acad Sci 979:178–196
Al-Busafi SA, Ghali P, Deschênes M, Wong P (2014) Chylous ascites: evaluation and management. ISRN Hepatol 240473:1–10
Miller MJ, McDole JR, Newberry RD (2010) Microanatomy of the intestinal lymphatic system. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1207:E21–E28
Choe K, Jang JY, Park I, Kim Y, Ahn S, Park DY et al (2015) Intravital imaging of intestinal lacteals unveils lipid drainage through contractility. J Clin Invest 125(11):4042–4052
Rasmussen JC, Tan I-C, Marshall MV, Fife CE, Sevick-Muraca EM (2009) Lymphatic imaging in humans with near-infrared fluorescence. Curr Opin Biotechnol 20(1):74–82
Zawieja DC (2009) Contractile physiology of lymphatics. Lymphat Res Biol 7(2):87–96
Mallick A, Bodenham AR (2003) Disorders of the lymph circulation: their relevance to anaesthesia and intensive care. Br J Anaesth 91:265–272
Thompson MD, Carr AP (2002) Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia associated with chylous pleural and peritoneal effusion in a cat. Can Vet J 43(8):610–613
Steven BR, Carey S (2015) Nutritional management in patients with chyle leakage: a systematic review. Eur J Clin Nutr 69:776–780
Borisov AV (2005) Functional anatomy of lymphangion. Morfologiia 128(6):18–27
Quick CM, Venugopal AM, Gashev AA, Zawieja DC, Stewart RH (2007) Intrinsic pump-conduit behavior of lymphangions. Am J Physiol—Regul, Integr Comp Physiol 292(4):R1510–R1518
Brace RA, Andres RL (1991) Left thoracic duct lymph flow responses to angiotensin II or atrial natriuretic factor infusion in the ovine fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 165(6 Pt 1):1607–1613
Lachance P-A, Hazen A, Sevick-Muraca EM (2013) Lymphatic vascular response to acute inflammation. PLoS ONE 8(9):e76078
Dunworth WP, Fritz-Six KL, Caron KM (2008) Adrenomedullin stabilizes the lymphatic endothelial barrier in vitro and in vivo. Peptides 29(12):2243–2249
Schmid-Schönbein GW (1990) Microlymphatics and lymph flow. Physiol Rev 70(4):987–1028
Reddy NP (1986) Lymph circulation: physiology, pharmacology, and biomechanics. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 14(1):45–91
Browning KN, Travagli RA (2014) Central nervous system control of gastrointestinal motility and secretion and modulation of gastrointestinal functions. Compr Physiol 4(4):1339–1368
Phillips RJ, Powley TL (2007) Innervation of the gastrointestinal tract: patterns of aging. Auton Neurosci 136(1–2):1–19
Straub RH, Wiest R, Strauch UG, Härle P, Schölmerich J (2006) The role of the sympathetic nervous system in intestinal inflammation. Gut 55(11):1640–1649
Furness JB, Callaghan BP, Rivera LR, Cho HJ (2014) The enteric nervous system and gastrointestinal innervation: integrated local and central control. Adv Exp Med Biol 817:39–71
Margolis KG, Gershon MD, Bogunovic M (2016) Cellular organization of neuroimmune interactions in the gastrointestinal tract. Trends Immunol 37(7):487–501
Pereverzev VA, Welcome MO, Melnichuk VI, Razvodovsky YE, Pereverzeva EV (2016) Fasting normoglycemia: classification, parameters, maintenance mechanisms. Healthcare 4:18–27
Duke GE (1986) Alimentary canal: secretion and digestion, special digestive functions, and absorption. In: Sturkie PD (ed) Avian physiology. Springer, New York
Karasov WH, Douglas AE (2013) Comparative digestive physiology. Compr Physiol 3(2):741–783
Furness JB, Cottrell JJ, Bravo DM (2015) Comparative gut physiology symposium: comparative physiology of digestion. J Anim Sci 93(2):485–491
Egorov VI, Schastlivtsev IV, Prut EV, Baranov AO, Turusov RA (2002) Mechanical properties of the human gastrointestinal tract. J Biomech 35(10):1417–1425
Kauffman GL Jr (1981) Gastric mucus and bicarbonate secretion in relation to mucosal protection. J Clin Gastroenterol 3(2):45–50
Agarwal R, Afzalpurkar R, Fordtran JS (1994) Pathophysiology of potassium absorption and secretion by the human intestine. Gastroenterology 107(2):548–571
O’Connor A, O’Moráin C (2014) Digestive function of the stomach. Dig Dis 32(3):186–191
Chu S, Schubert ML (2012) Gastric secretion. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 28(6):587–593
Schubert ML (2014) Gastric secretion. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 30(6):578–582
Schubert ML (2009) Gastric exocrine and endocrine secretion. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 25(6):529–536
Ménard D (2004) Functional development of the human gastrointestinal tract: hormone-and growth factor-mediated regulatory mechanisms. Can J Gastroenterol 18(1):39–44
Eckmann L, Stenson WF, Savidge TC, Lowe DC, Barrett KE, Fierer J et al (1997) Role of intestinal epithelial cells in the host secretory response to infection by invasive bacteria. Bacterial entry induces epithelial prostaglandin h synthase-2 expression and prostaglandin E2 and F2alpha production. J Clin Invest 100(2):296–309
Bronner F (2003) Mechanisms of intestinal calcium absorption. J Cell Biochem 88(2):387–393
Ward JB, Keely SJ, Keely SJ (2014) Oxygen in the regulation of intestinal epithelial transport. J Physiol 592(12):2473–2489
Pizzorno L (2016) Bariatric surgery: bad to the bone, part 1. Integr Med (Encinitas) 15(1):48–54
Terra X, Auguet T, Guiu-Jurado E, Berlanga A, Orellana-Gavaldà JM, Hernández M et al (2013) Long-term changes in leptin, chemerin and ghrelin levels following different bariatric surgery procedures: Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy. Obes Surg 23(11):1790–1798
Ghishan FK, Kiela PR (2014) Epithelial transport in inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm Bowel Dis 20(6):1099–1109
Field M (2003) Intestinal ion transport and the pathophysiology of diarrhea. J Clin Invest 111(7):931–943
Kiel JW, Shepherd AP (1990) Gastrointestinal blood flow. In: Shepherd AP, Åke Öberg P (eds) Laser-doppler blood flowmetry. Developments in cardiovascular medicine. Springer Science + Business Media, New York
Kiela PR, Ghishan FK (2009) Ion transport in the intestine. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 25(2):87–91
Marks J, Debnam ES, Unwin RJ (2013) The role of the gastrointestinal tract in phosphate homeostasis in health and chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 22(4):481–487
Reining SC, Liesegang A, Betz H, Biber J, Murer H, Hernando N (2010) Expression of renal and intestinal Na/Pi cotransporters in the absence of GABARAP. Pflugers Arch 460(1):207–217
Laforenza U (2012) Water channel proteins in the gastrointestinal tract. Mol Aspects Med 33(5–6):642–650
Zhu C, Chen Z, Jiang Z (2016) Expression, distribution and role of aquaporin water channels in human and animal stomach and intestines. Int J Mol Sci 17(9). pii:E1399
Page DA, Carlson GP (1994) The role of the intestinal tract in the elimination of carbon tetrachloride. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 124(2):268–274
Arimori K, Nakano M (1998) Drug exsorption from blood into the gastrointestinal tract. Pharm Res 15(3):371–376
Hollander D, Dadufalza VD (1983) Intestinal exsorption of oleic acid: influence of aging, bile, pH and ethanol. J Nutr 113(3):511–518
Leu BL, Huang J (1995) Inhibition of intestinal P-glycoprotein and effects on etoposide absorption. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 35(5):432–436
Carr RA, Pasutto FM, Foster RT (1996) Renal, biliary and intestinal clearance of sotalol enantiomers in rat model: evidence of intestinal exsorption. Biopharm Drug Dispos 17(8):725–735
Sarker SA, Gyr K (1992) Non-immunological defence mechanisms of the gut. Gut 33(7):987–993
Dommett R, Zilbauer M, George JT, Bajaj-Elliott M (2005) Innate immune defence in the human gastrointestinal tract. Mol Immunol 42(8):903–912
Hansson GC (2012) Role of mucus layers in gut infection and inflammation. Curr Opin Microbiol 15(1):57–62
Janssen AW, Kersten S (2015) The role of the gut microbiota in metabolic health. FASEB J 29(8):3111–3123
Fukuda S, Ohno H (2014) Gut microbiome and metabolic diseases. Semin Immunopathol 36(1):103–114
Rubino F, R’bibo SL, del Genio F, Mazumdar M, McGraw TE (2010) Metabolic surgery: the role of the gastrointestinal tract in diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol 6(2):102–109
Devaraj S, Hemarajata P, Versalovic J (2013) The human gut microbiome and body metabolism: implications for obesity and diabetes. Clin Chem 59(4):617–628
Turnbaugh PJ, Gordon JI (2009) The core gut microbiome, energy balance and obesity. J Physiol 587(Pt 17):4153–4158
Krebs NF (2000) Overview of zinc absorption and excretion in the human gastrointestinal tract. J Nutr 130(5S):1374S–1377S
Klevay LM, Bogden JD, Aladjem M, Sandstead HH, Kemp FW, Li W et al (2007) Renal and gastrointestinal potassium excretion in humans: new insight based on new data and review and analysis of published studies. J Am Coll Nutr 26(2):103–110
Cheng LK, O’Grady G, Du P, Egbuji JU, Windsor JA, Pullan AJ (2010) Gastrointestinal system. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med 2(1):65–79
Gunawardene AR, Corfe BM, Staton CA (2011) Classification and functions of enteroendocrine cells of the lower gastrointestinal tract. Int J Exp Pathol 92(4):219–231
Arnold R (2005) Endocrine tumours of the gastrointestinal tract. Introduction: definition, historical aspects, classification, staging, prognosis and therapeutic options. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 19(4):491–505
Maggs D, MacDonald I, Nauck MA (2008) Glucose homeostasis and the gastrointestinal tract: insights into the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 10(1):18–33
Ewart WR (1985) Sensation in the gastrointestinal tract. Comp Biochem Physiol, A: Comp Physiol 82(3):489–493
Yu X, Yu M, Liu Y, Yu S (2016) TRP channel functions in the gastrointestinal tract. Semin Immunopathol 38(3):385–396
Blackshaw LA, Brookes SJ, Grundy D, Schemann M (2007) Sensory transmission in the gastrointestinal tract. Neurogastroenterol Motil 19(1):1–19
Brock C, Arendt-Nielsen L, Wilder-Smith O, Drewes AM (2009) Sensory testing of the human gastrointestinal tract. World J Gastroenterol 15(2):151–159
Rayner CK, Samsom M, Jones KL, Horowitz M (2001) Relationships of upper gastrointestinal motor and sensory function with glycemic control. Diabetes Care 24(2):371–381
Yi C-X, Tschöp MH (2012) Brain–gut–adipose-tissue communication pathways at a glance. Dis Model Mech 5(5):583–587
Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli MA, Severi C (2015) The gut-brain axis: interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Ann Gastroenterol 28(2):203–209
van der Flier LG, Clevers H (2009) Stem cells, self-renewal, and differentiation in the intestinal epithelium. Annu Physiol 71:241–260
Mayhew TM (1990) Striated brush border of intestinal absorptive epithelial cells: stereological studies on microvillous morphology in different adaptive states. J Electron Microsc Tech 16(1):45–55
Lan M, Kojima T, Murata M, Osanai M, Takano K, Chiba H, Sawada N (2006) Phosphorylation of ezrin enhances microvillus length via a p38 MAP-kinase pathway in an immortalized mouse hepatic cell line. Exp Cell Res 312(2):111–120
Venugopal AM, Stewart RH, Laine GA, Dongaonkar RM, Quick CM (2007) Lymphangion coordination minimally affects mean flow in lymphatic vessels. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 293(2):H1183–H1189
Dudek RW (2010) High-yield systems gastrointestinal tract. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA
Kuo B, Urma D (2006) Esophagus—anatomy and development. GI Motil Online. https://doi.org/10.1038/gimo6
Gahutu JB, Wane J (2006) Reference values for serum protein and electrolyte study from Rwanda. East Afr Med J 83(2):64–67
Lolekha PH, Vanavanan S, Teerakarnjana N, Chaichanajarernkul U (2001) Reference ranges of electrolyte and anion gap on the beckman E4A, beckman synchron CX5, nova CRT, and nova stat profile ultra. Clin Chim Acta 307(1–2):87–93
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Welcome, M.O. (2018). Structural and Functional Organization of the Gastrointestinal Tract. In: Gastrointestinal Physiology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91056-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91056-7_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-91055-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-91056-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)