Abstract
In this final part, the book examines the possible consequences of these domestic and international developments for Europe.
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- 1.
Under the heading “Space”, the roadmap more specifically states that the objective is “to build an effective system of cooperation and partnership between the EU and the Russian Federation in the following fields of space activities: Access to Space: Launchers and Future Space Transportation systems; Space Applications: Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS); global monitoring by satellites and satellite communications; Space exploration and the use of the International Space Station (ISS); Space Technologies Development”. In terms of actions to be undertaken the document lists: (a) Political cooperation to create favourable framework conditions in the field of space transportation, accompanying the cooperation between the European Space Agency and Russia; cooperation for the development of infrastructure for the launch of Russian SOYUZ-ST Launcher from the European Spaceport in the Guiana Space Centre; (b) Enhance and strengthen cooperation on Galileo and GLONASS GNSS including on compatibility and interoperability between the two systems and the creation of the conditions for industrial and technical cooperation, in the context of an intergovernmental agreement; (c) Provide appropriate environment for fruitful cooperation on Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) programme and for joint projects in satellite communication systems; (d) Coordinate the EU and the Russian positions towards the Global Earth Observation initiative (GEO); (e) Continue cooperation and partnership in joint initiatives in space explorations, including Space Science on which relevant activities shall be carried out in the framework of the Common Space on Research and Education, including Culture; (f) Continue cooperation in the use of the ISS; (g) Support joint programmes and projects in Space Technology Development; (h) Setting up an expert group to establish an EU-Russia Dialogue on Space; (i) In the framework of the PCA institutions, establish a mechanism for cooperation to comply with the objectives agreed by the Parties; (j) Exchange information and ensure consultation on respective space programmes” (European External Action Service, 2005).
- 2.
Whereas in January 2015Armenia decided to join Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan in the EEU, Ukraine preferred to proceed with an AA with the EU.
- 3.
When looking at Europe’s dependency on Russian gas, or Russia’s dependency on European money, it has been argued Russian over dependence on energy exports (energy accounts for nearly two-thirds of Russia’s total exports), particularly those to the largest energy market in the world (the EU), make Russia more dependent on the current energy relationship than the other way around.
- 4.
A key determinant in the development of relations between the EU and Russia will be the position of eastern EU Member States, especially Poland and the Baltic States, which have been quite critical towards Russia and closer EU-Russia cooperation.
- 5.
The ELN is a non-partisan organisation based in London working to develop collaborative European capacity to address foreign, defence and security policy challenges through its active network of former and emerging European political, military, and diplomatic leaders and through institutional partnerships across Europe. The survey involved 42 respondents represent a diverse and experienced group of individuals from 20 countries and all major regions of Europe.
- 6.
Nevertheless, ESA has supported the EC in the Space Dialogues the EC has set up with United States, Russia, China and South Africa (Fonseca, 2013).
- 7.
Developed from refurbished intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) components by Khrunichev, the Rockot is a three-stage launch vehicle predominantly used for sending scientific, Earth observation and climate monitoring satellites into LEO orbit. It can deliver up to 2150 kg in LEO from the Plesetsk launch centre and it launched EU Copernicus satellites Sentinel 3A, 2B and 5P in 2016.
- 8.
The OURAL programme, launched by CNES at the beginnings of 2000s but ultimately intended as a European undertaking, aimed “to design and build technology demonstrators for the development of a future launch vehicle in partnership with Russia” The agreement between CNES President Yannick d’Escatha and the Head of Roscosmos Anatoly Perminov covering cooperation on future launch vehicles and human spaceflight was signed on 15 March 2005 inn Paris. As reported by CNES, the ultimate aim of this launcher partnership programme was “to develop, by 2020, a new system combining cost effectiveness, a high level of reliability, enhanced safety and reduced environmental impact, to launch, transport and maintain satellites, spacecraft and orbital stations. This partnership with Russia, to be pursued in particular through joint construction of demonstrators, will seek to leverage the experience of Russia’s launch industry and lay the groundwork for a possible future joint development, by bringing together the engineering cultures of Russian and European firms. The key technologies underlying these developments will involve a lot of study and experimental work, enabling European teams to maintain their expertise (Ibid).
- 9.
ExoMars was conceived at the beginning of the 2000s as part of the broader ESA Aurora programme for the human Mars exploration of Mars. That initial plan envisaged the launch of a rover in 2009 and a sample return mission in subsequent stage. The programme was approved in December 2005 as an ESA optional programme, with the rover slated to launch in 2011 aboard a Soyuz launch vehicle. In July 2009, however, ESA and NASA signed an agreement (the Mars Exploration Joint Initiative) to join resources in the exploration of Mars. The agreement foresaw the utilisation an Atlas rocket launcher instead of a Soyuz, thus significantly altering the technical and financial setting of the ExoMars mission (including the combination of the mission with a second rover—the MAX-C—and a substantial reduction of the rover’s weight to fit on the Atlas rocket). This notwithstanding, in August 2009 ESA signed an agreement with Roscosmos to secure a Proton launch vehicle as a “backup rocket” for the ExoMars rover, (which would include Russian-made parts) and to cooperate on the Phobos-Grunt programme. Owning to a budgeting reduction for NASA, in February 2012 NASA terminated its participation in ExoMars, forcing ESA to restructure the ExoMars programme. Eventually, on 14 March 2013, ESA and Roscosmos signed a new deal making Russia the full partner of ExoMars.
- 10.
Re-calibration and cross-calibration are an essential prerequisite for arriving at a homogenous time series of measurements across successive satellites that are useable for climate studies. A simple concatenation of data in time would not be useful for climate analysis. Therefore, in order to achieve an international, independent system for estimating global emissions based on internationally accepted data, cooperation to cross-calibrate instruments and cross-validate their measurements is quintessential.
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Aliberti, M., Lisitsyna, K. (2019). Prospects for Europe. In: Russia's Posture in Space. Studies in Space Policy, vol 18. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90554-9_4
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