Abstract
In this chapter, I argue that the debate on inclusive education or special education is one which should not preoccupy Africa at this time rather the desire to drive towards realisation of quality education. The task of realising the right to education has not being without some challenges and criticism. This has been based either on institutional criticism or instructional criticism. With particular reference to people with disability and their attendant right to education, the challenges are more daunting. The statistics are worrisome as access is at the lowest ebb and more so quality. Currently, the raging debate is on whether education should be inclusive or special. While the Convention on the Rights of People with Disability, specifically calls for inclusive education (article 24), the African Charter on Rights and Welfare of a Child (article 17) calls on State parties to ensure that ‘special measures are taken to promote self-reliance and participation in the community’.
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Notes
- 1.
Klaus D. Beiter, “The protection of the right to education by international law,” International Studies in Human Rights 82 (2006): 92, Martinus Nijhoff, the Netherlands. This position is also supported by A. Skelton in her analysis of Section 29 (a) of the South Africa Constitution stating that the right to basic education demands immediate realisation and not subject to the progressive argument. See generally Ann Skelton, “The role of the courts in ensuring the right to a basic education in a democratic South Africa: a critical evaluation of recent education case law,” Southern African Public Law Journal 27: 398–408.
- 2.
Fons Coomans, “Clarifying the core elements of the right to education.”
- 3.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHR, Article 26.
- 4.
United Nations Charter, Article 1.
- 5.
See, for instance, UNESCO Global Education Initiative, “Education consistently ranks at the top of business, government and civil society agendas as one of the most crucial issues to prepare the next generation of citizens in today’s increasingly interconnected world.” http://www.unesco.org/education/GEI_brochure.pdf (accessed 28 February 2017); see also UNESCO Education for All Flagship programme, available at http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/know_sharing/flagship_initiatives/ (accessed 28 February 2017).
- 6.
Nelson Mandela quotes http://www.searchquotes.com/quotation/Education_is_the_great_engine_of_personal_development._It_is_through_education_that_the_daughter_of_/15875/ (accessed 29 May 2017).
- 7.
Okey Abosi, “Educating children with learning disabilities in Africa learning disabilities,” Research & Practice (2007): 196.
- 8.
According to Peters, this challenge continues to be a ‘dominant problem in the disability field … the lack of access to education for both children and adults with disabilities’. Peters Susan J., “Inclusive education: An EFA strategy for all children,” World Bank 31195 (2004): 1.
- 9.
Vivian Ihuoma Okpala, “Excluded and forgotten: Education of the hearing impaired child in Anambra State of Nigeria” (paper presented at the conference on Disability, University of Pretoria 4–6 November 2013).
- 10.
Louis Mbibeh, “Implementing inclusive education in Cameroun, evidence from Camoerounian Baptist convention health board,” International Journal of Education (2013): 1.
- 11.
Rights in education have been argued to be different from the right to education. Right to equality, discrimination and dignity are components of the rights in education. For discussions on this see generally Azubike Onuora-Oguno, Assessing the Right to Education of Indigenous People: A Case Study of the Batwa people of Uganda (2008) VDM Verlag Dr. Müller; Frederick Juuko & Constance Kabonesa, “Universal Primary Education (U.P.E) in contemporary Uganda: Right or privilege?” HURIPEC working paper No 8, 2007, available at http://huripec.mak.ac.ug/pdfs/working_paper_8.pdf (accessed 28 February 2017).
- 12.
In a round-table discuss with NGO’s held at the Legal Resource Centre Johannesburg office in October 2013, the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education Kishore Singh expressed the need to match access with quality in the post-millennium aspirations on the realization of the right to basic education.
- 13.
For a detailed discussion on the 4A approach to realization of the right to education see generally Katrina Tomasevski, Removing obstacles in the way of the right to education. Primers No. 1 (2001); Mieke Verheyde, “A commentary on the United Nations convention on the rights of the child, Article 28—Right to education,” Nijhoff (2006); Chikezie Anyanwu and A. C. Onuora-Oguno, “Ten years of the AU protocol on the rights of women in Africa: An overview of the girl child access to basic education in Africa,” available at www.equalitynow.org/sites/…/MaputoProtocol_JourneytoEquality.pdf (accessed 15 January 2018).
- 14.
UNESCO, “Nearly 30 million African children out of school,” available at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/dakar/aboutthisoffice/singleview/news/nearly_30_million_african_children_out_of_school/#.UxCWpuOSy2U (accessed 23 December 2017).
- 15.
Mel Ainscow and Cesar, “Inclusive education ten years after Salamanca: Setting the agenda,” European Journal of Psychology of Education (2006): 235.
- 16.
Seamus Hegarty, “International perspectives on special education reform,” European Journal of Special Needs Education 13(1) (2006): 113.
- 17.
Kenneth A. Kavale and Steven R. Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate (London: Sage, 2000): 280.
- 18.
James Bowen and Peter R. Hobson, Theories of education studies of significant innovation in Western education thoughts (Australia: Watson Ferhuson & Co., 1974), 8.
- 19.
See generally Michelle Theriault Messemer “General education teacher perceptions regarding inclusion of students with autism spectrum disorder,” at http://udini.proquest.com/view/general-education-teacher-goid:520326624/ (accessed 19 February 2017).
- 20.
Devery R. Mock, Jennifer J. Jakubecy, and James M. Kauffman, “Special education—Current trends, preparation of teachers,” available at http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2438/Special-Education.html (accessed 18 February 2017).
- 21.
See Article 3 of the Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education adopted by the world conference on special needs education: Access and quality, available at http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF (accessed 11 October 2017).
- 22.
Peters, 5–6.
- 23.
Osler Audrey and Starkey Hugh, Changing citizenship: Democracy and inclusion in education (London: Sage, 2005), 283.
- 24.
Peters, “Inclusive education: An EFA strategy for all children,” 8
- 25.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 279.
- 26.
“Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education,” adopted by the world conference on special needs education: access and quality, available at http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF (accessed 11 October 2017).
- 27.
Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education adopted by the world conference on special needs education: Access and quality, http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF (accessed 11 October 2017) emphasis supplied.
- 28.
See generally Lise Vislie, “From integration to inclusion: Focusing global trends and changes in the Western European Societies,” European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18 (2003): 1. Vislie asks ‘The main question is, of course, whether the new terminology means only a linguistic shift or a new agenda’. Importantly, this paper argues that the question is not that of nomenclature but towards and agenda of quality in basic education for African children especially CWD.
- 29.
Peters, “Inclusive education: An EFA strategy for all children,” 9.
- 30.
Vislie, “From integration to inclusion: Focusing global trends and changes in the Western European Societies,” 21.
- 31.
See generally Rose Richard, “Primary school teacher perceptions of the conditions required to include pupils with special educational needs,” Educational Review 53(2) (2001): 147.
- 32.
Jenny Corbett, “Inclusive education and school culture,” International Journal of Inclusive Education 3(1) (1999): 53.
- 33.
UDHR, Article 26.
- 34.
Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), Articles 13 and 14.
- 35.
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (ACHPR), Article 17.
- 36.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Article 28.
- 37.
African Charter on Human Rights on the Welfare of the Child (ACHRWC), Article 11.
- 38.
http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/signature.shtml (last accessed 21 November 2017).
- 39.
Convention on the Rights of People with Disability (CRPD), Article 24.
- 40.
CRPD, Article 2.
- 41.
Yaba Lagos; Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) Press, 6th edition, 2013.
- 42.
Nigeria Policy on education NPE, Article 3 (e).
- 43.
NPE, Article 119.
- 44.
Eleweke C. Jonah, “The need for mandatory legislations to enhance services to people with disabilities in Nigeria,” Disability & Society 14(2) (1999): 229.
- 45.
Eleweke, “The need for mandatory legislations to enhance services to people with disabilities in Nigeria,” 229.
- 46.
According to Ajuwon ‘Often, it is gratifying that where school and community environments can be made physically and programmatically accessible, children and youth with physical disabilities can function more effectively than would otherwise be the case. It is also apparent that such modifications to the environment often enable others who do not have disabilities to access their environment even more readily’. See generally Paul M. Ajuwon, “Inclusive education for students with disabilities in Nigeria: Benefits, challenges and policy implications,” International Journal of Special Education 23(3) (2008): 11.
- 47.
For a brief discuss on the issues of access to education generally and inclusive education, see generally, Lipsky Dorothy Kerzner, “Are we there yet?” Learning Disability Quarterly (2005): 2.
- 48.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 279.
- 49.
Vislie, “From integration to inclusion: Focusing global trends and changes in the Western European Societies,” 21. This on its own portends some challenges as the challenge of embracing further educational systems not fashioned in line with African philosophies is challenging. For arguments on this see generally Michello Hansungule and Azubike C. Onuora-Oguno, “African perspective of education: A catalyst for the desired Africa of tomorrow?” Presented at the Thabo Mbeki Advanced Leadership Institute August 2013.
- 50.
Ainscow and Cesar, “Inclusive education ten years after Salamanca: Setting the agenda,” 231.
- 51.
The greatest challenge facing education in Nigeria presently is the issue of lack of security and guarantee of lives of students because of the attacks of the Boko Haram sect in Nigeria. Thousands of lives have been lost and infrastructure burnt down in the continued and sustained rejection of what the sect has termed Western education. The impact of this is that parents are reluctant to send their children to schools anymore and even teachers scared to access schools as they remain targets.
- 52.
Supo Jegede and Perpetua I. Ememe, “The inclusiveness of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme,” Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR) 1(2) (2011): 128.
- 53.
Shavaun Wall, Filip Loncke, and Nancy Smith, “Collaborative training for special education and rehabilitation services in the developing world,” 2–4, http://faculty.cua.edu/smithd/asdeg/journalarticle.pdf (accessed 3 March 2017).
- 54.
The author has had the opportunity to visit some special schools in Nigeria like the School for the Disabled in Ozubulu, Anambra State, observations show that most teachers are not skilled in providing efficient support for the pupils under their care.
- 55.
N. O. E. Eleri, “Teaching effectiveness in elements of special education in NCE awarding institutions in Nigeria: Influence of teacher qualification and experience,” IOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education 2(2) (2013): 7.
- 56.
In Anambra State, during the era of Dr. Mbadinuju Primary schools were shut down for 11 months. This ensured that there was no academic activity in the state for a whole session. In late 2013, primary school teachers in Benue State of Nigeria were on strike affecting academic activities. For more insight into the challenge of strike in Nigeria basic education sector see generally “Nigerian education in crisis,” available at http://educationincrisis.net/country-profiles/africa/item/558-nigeria (accessed 3 March 2017); Nigeria: Teachers’ strike: House orders Mbadinuju to pay teachers, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/200202110616.html (accessed 3 March 2017); Teachers’ strike: Govt/Labour relations in Federalism, available at http://www.thenationonlineng.net/archive2/tblnews_Detail.php?id=54695 (accessed 3 March 2017).
- 57.
Olayi James Eburikure, “Overcoming the challenges of inclusive education in Nigeria: a focus on South-South geopolitical zone,” Journal of Exceptional People 2(3) (2013):10.
- 58.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 3.
- 59.
Alfredo J. Artiles, Elizabeth B. Kozleski, et al., “Learning in inclusive education research: Re-mediating theory and methods with a transformative agenda,” Review of Research in Education 30 Special Issue on Rethinking Learning: What Counts as Learning and What Learning Counts (2006): 65.
- 60.
Emphasis provided, this is to provide the understanding that rather than dwell on nomenclature, the need for a transformation towards quality is imperative.
- 61.
Ainscow and Cesar, “Inclusive education ten years after Salamanca: Setting the agenda,” 233.
- 62.
See generally Singh Kishore and Moumne Rolla, “Inclusive dimension to the right to education: Normative basis” (2008) prepared by the Eighth and Ninth Meetings of the Joint Expert group UNESCO (CR)/ECOSOC (CESCR) on the monitoring of the right to education.
- 63.
Alvaro Marchesi, “International perspectives on special education reform,” European Journal of Special Needs Education 13(1) (1998): 119.
- 64.
Susie Miles and Nidhi Singal, “The education for all and inclusive education debate: conflict, contradiction or opportunity?” International Journal of Inclusive Education (2010): 3. The emphasis supplied goes to underscore the point that beyond the nomenclature that could be adopted in education a CWD quality is paramount.
- 65.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 283.
- 66.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 283.
- 67.
For an insight into the attitude of teachers to education of CWD see generally Olufemi Aremu, O. A. Fakolade, et al., “Attitude of teachers towards the inclusion of special needs children in general education classroom: the case of teachers in some selected schools in Nigeria,” International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education (2009).
- 68.
“Teacher education for inclusion International Literature Review European Agency for development in special needs,” available at http://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/te4i-international-literature-review_TE4I-Literature-Review.pdf (accessed 19 February 2017).
- 69.
Sarah D. Phillips, “EU disability policy and implications of EU accession for disability rights in education and employment in Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,” Journal of Disability Policy Studies (2011), http://dps.sagepub.com/content/22/4/208 (accessed 11 October 2017).
- 70.
Artiles and Kozleski, “Learning in inclusive education research: Re-mediating theory and methods with a transformative agenda,” 65.
- 71.
Artiles and Kozleski, “Learning in inclusive education research: Re-mediating theory and methods with a transformative agenda,” 73.
- 72.
Hegarty, “International perspectives on special education reform,” 114.
- 73.
Ajuwon, “Inclusive education for students with disabilities in Nigeria: Benefits, challenges and policy implications,” 11.
- 74.
Mel Ainscow, Peter Farrell, et al., “Effective practice in inclusion and in special and mainstream schools working together,” Department for Education Research Brief No. 91, Centre for Educational Needs, University of Manchester 4 (1999).
- 75.
Kavale and Forness, History, rhetoric, and reality analysis of the inclusive debate, 284.
- 76.
Marvin A. Zuker, Education Law (Ontario: Carswell, 2002): 281.
- 77.
For an Insight into the Challenges of the Realization of Special Education in Nigeria see Festus E. Obiakor, “Special education reform in Nigeria: Prospects and challenges,” European Journal of Special Needs Education (2008): 51.
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Onuora-Oguno, A.C. (2019). Beyond Nomenclature: Special Education or Inclusive Education—Advocating Quality Basic Education. In: Development and the Right to Education in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90335-4_4
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