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Obstacles Affecting Access to Basic Education

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Development and the Right to Education in Africa

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Abstract

The chapter sets out to discuss some identifiable obstacles that affect access to basic education. Identified challenges discussed include, but are not limited to, challenges of policy and law, poor infrastructure and weak institutions. In addition, the impact of challenges of culture, religion, ethics and corruption are also examined. The resultant effect of the discussed factor is that their impact on the state of development in Africa is gigantic. This chapter examines the shortfalls in the legislative approach to enacting viable legislation, judicial adjudication and oversight functions to ensure prompt delivery and execution of policies by the executive arm of government as a means of overcoming the obstacles that affect education and subsequently development.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Nigeria is rated to be one of the 10 nations in the world with the highest number of adult illiterates. This figure is presently put at about 46 million adults ranging from ages 15 and above. The World Bank has already expressed concerns over this worrying statistic and is trying to collaborate with the Federal Ministry of Education in trying to see how this percentage can be reduced. However, it is the author’s conviction that if the challenges that will be discussed in this chapter are not tackled properly, the projects may yield limited results. For more news on the World Bank planned project, see The Sun Newspaper, 21 October 2013.

  2. 2.

    Ulf Fredriksson, “Quality education: The teachers’ key role,” Workshop 4, 1, Education International, available at www.ibe.unesco.org (accessed 4 December 2017).

  3. 3.

    Dakar Framework for Action Article 7, World Education Forum, 2000. It is important to note that the concept of quality may be seen or approached from two perspectives. While the one deals with questions of infrastructure the other deals with outcome. It is arguable that the later may have some inclination on capabilities of the individual child, but is noted that the impact of the former may greatly affect outcome. For detailed insight into the linkages between inputs and outcomes in assessment of quality in education, see generally UNESCO, “Understanding education quality,” (2005), EFA Global Monitoring Report; National Basement of Education Series developed by the World Bank, available at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:22301663~menuPK:5495844~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386~isCURL:Y,00.html (accessed 14 October 2017); Y. Cheong Cheng and T. Wai Ming, “Multi-models of quality in education,” Quality Assurance in Education 5(1) (1997): 22; A. Case and A. Deaton “School inputs and educational outcomes in South Africa,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (1999): 1047.

  4. 4.

    See generally Fredriksson, “Quality education: The teachers’ key role.”

  5. 5.

    Kayode Ajayi and Muyiwa Adeyemi, “Universal Basic Education (UBE) policy implementation in facilities provisions: Ogun State as a case study,” International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications 3 (2011): 35; Teboho Moja, “Nigeria education sector analysis: An analytical synthesis of performance and main issues,” 10, report produced for the World Bank (2000), available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NIGERIAEXTN/Resources/ed_sec_analysis.pdf (accessed 24 September 2017).

  6. 6.

    I. M. Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” European Scientific Journal 8 (2012): 3.

  7. 7.

    Various political parties in Nigeria in the build-up to 2015 have been organising various forum on governance, education and infrastructural development. It is my opinion that the majority of the discussions are laden more with political and vote-canvassing techniques as opposed to resolve to foster a sustainable education initiative.

  8. 8.

    Wa Thiongo Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature (Nairobi: East African Publishers, 1981), 9.

  9. 9.

    Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature, 9.

  10. 10.

    For a detailed responsibility placed on the executive arm of government of Nigeria in ensuring that education is provided, promoted and fulfilled, see generally the Federal Ministry of Education’s Status Report, available at http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Nigeria/Nigeria%20Ed%20Sector%20Status%20May%202003.pdf (accessed 17 April 2017).

  11. 11.

    Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” 3.

  12. 12.

    It is noted here that several other policies as it affects the access to secondary and tertiary education also exist. While the tertiary education in Nigeria is currently confronted with huge challenges and strikes hinged on the non-implementation of policies, it does not fall with the scope of the education discussed in this thesis.

  13. 13.

    For further reading on adult functional literacy in Nigeria, see generally Joseph B. Ayodele and Mary O. Adedokun, “Towards achieving functional adult literacy in Nigeria,” European Scientific Journal 8 (2012): 209–235.

  14. 14.

    David A. Olaniyan and Olabanki E. Obadara, “A critical review of management of primary education in Nigeria,” International Journal of African and African American Studies VII(1) (2008): 10.

  15. 15.

    National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was initially established on 22 July 1983 and subsequently closed on 25 April 1984. For a detailed history and challenges to NOUN, see T. N. Ambe-Uva “National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN): A historical perspective and challenges,” Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE 8(1) (2007): 1302.

  16. 16.

    K. Kazeem and O. Ige, “Redressing the growing concern of the education sector in Nigeria,” Edo Journal of Counselling 3(1) (2010): 42.

  17. 17.

    Kazeem and Ige, “Redressing the growing concern of the education sector in Nigeria,” 42.

  18. 18.

    J. A. Atoyebi, “A critique of the five main objectives of the philosophy of Nigerian education in the contemporary socio-economic and political trends in the country,” available at http://www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/atoyebi/J.A.%20ATOYEBI.htm (accessed 23 September 2017). See generally A. Adegbite, “Languages and the challenges of education in Nigeria,” Journal of the Nigerian English Studies Association (JNESA) 14(1) (2010): 14, where Adegbite describes policy formulation in Nigeria in these words: ‘In Nigeria, several policies have been formulated and programmes initiated and embarked upon, albeit sporadically and haphazardly in many areas’.

  19. 19.

    B. T. Danmole, “Emerging issues on the Universal Basic Education curriculum in Nigeria: Implications for the science and technology component,” Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 8(1) (2011): 62.

  20. 20.

    Danmole, “Emerging issues on the Universal Basic Education curriculum in Nigeria: Implications for the science and technology component,” 62.

  21. 21.

    Some of the factors responsible for this range from the fact that some schools, especially the private-owned schools, because of better availability of funds, employ more skilled teachers who invariably are supposed to have better skills. Subsequently, many disparities on educational facilities available to them exist from one school to another.

  22. 22.

    Danmole, “Emerging issues on the Universal Basic Education curriculum in Nigeria: Implications for the science and technology component,” 62.

  23. 23.

    Katrina Tomasevski, Removing obstacles in the way of the right to education. Primers No. 1 (2001), 12.

  24. 24.

    Klaus D. Beiter, “The protection of the right to education by international law,” International Studies in Human Rights 82 (2006): 509.

  25. 25.

    Beiter, “The protection of the right to education by international law,” 512.

  26. 26.

    Nigeria corruption busters, available at https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/nigerias-corruption-busters.html (accessed 15 October 2017); G. Okojie, “Nigeria judiciary frustrating war against corruption,” available at http://allafrica.com/stories/201507220125.html (accessed 15 October 2017).

  27. 27.

    I. Grobbelaar-Du Plessis and T. Van Reenen, Aspects of disability law in Africa, forward by C. McClain-Nhlapo (Pretoria: Pretoria University Law Press, 2012), VII (my emphasis).

  28. 28.

    Plessis and Van Reenen, Introduction to aspects of disability law in Africa, XV.

  29. 29.

    http://www.dwa.org.au/whatisadisability.htm (accessed 23 October 2017).

  30. 30.

    http://www.disability.wa.gov.au/understanding-disability1/understanding-disability/what-is-disability/ (accessed 23 October 2017).

  31. 31.

    http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/ (accessed 23 October 2017) (my emphasis).

  32. 32.

    For a detailed discussion on the medical and social models of disability, see Grobbelaar-Du Plessis and Van Reenen, XXIII–XXVII.

  33. 33.

    I have discussed this concept in a separate chapter premised on a research I titled “Special education or inclusive education: Bridging the gap of access to quality education,” (paper presented at the Global Alliance for Justice Education, 10–14 December 2013).

  34. 34.

    Kathryn E. Hill and G. M. C. H. Gindiri, “Problems encountered by visually-handicapped Nigerian candidates in schools and public examinations and some strategies to overcome them,” available at http://www.icevi.org/publications/educator/winter_99/nigeria.htm (accessed 23 October 2017).

  35. 35.

    See generally D. Awanbor, “Ten years of the national policy on education in Nigeria: An assessment of policy on special education,” International Journal of Disability, Development and Education (1995): 42. Awanbor underscores the point of proper implementation of the education for PLWD and suggests that a robust legal framework is a major basis for the realisation of the aspiration of the national policy on education. It therefore seems that with the current plans by the Nigerian Senate to enact an Act that will deal specifically with the need of PLWD is a welcome development in this regard. However, other challenges that are attendant, such as skill acquisition by teachers who are expected to be responsible for the education of the child at this level, still loom large.

  36. 36.

    Notable among the list of special schools in Nigeria includes, but is not limited to, the Special Education Centre, Orji River, Anambra State; the Special Education Centre, Ogbunike, Anambra State; St Francis School for the Handicapped Vandekiya, Benue State: School for the Handicapped, Tudun Maliki, Kano State; Community School for the Handicapped, Ogbomosho, Oyo State; Special Education Unit, Ayegbaju, Ile Ife, Osun State; Handicapped School, Iwo, Osun State; Special Education Unit, St Philips Anglican School, Ilaro, Ife, Osun State; School for Handicapped Children, Ibereodo, Ogun State; Special Education Centre, Orlu, Imo State; Special School Ikoyi, Osun State; HILA Special Education, Agodi, Ibadan, Oyo State; Special School for the Handicapped, Ilesa, Ogun State, Lagelu; Special Education Unit, Lalupon, Oyo State; Omoyemi Special Unit, Ibadan, Oyo State; Special Education Centre, Jada; School for Handicapped Children, Benin City, Edo State; School for the Handicapped, Roni, Kano, CMML; Special School Iyale; St Louis Centre, Ifohu, Ikot Ekpene, Akwa Ibom State; The Children Special School Ikot Ekpene; Sokoto State School of Handicapped Sokoto; School for the Handicapped, Bauchi; Good Shepherd Special Education Centre, Ogojo, Cross River State; All Saint Special School, Osogbo, Osun State; School for Handicapped Children, Ilaro, Ogun State; School for Handicapped Children, Shagamu Remu, Ogun State; and Modupe Cole Centre, Akoka Lagos State.

  37. 37.

    It is the author’s personal experience of having classmates at the University and the Nigeria Law School that did not get any form of support from the institution; this remains a challenge that is worth noting. As was the case, the individuals had to rely on their friends and incurred huge financial responsibilities before they could realise their academic objectives. If special schools must therefore continue to exist in Nigeria, there is a need to ensure that there is continued support for PLWD to attain their educational aspirations. The need for equal access is further captured in the case of a blind student. See generally B. Obi, “Equalising education opportunities for the Nigerian–Ghanaian blind girl-child,” available at http://wecando.wordpress.com/2007/11/11/paper-equalizing-educational-opportunity-for-the-nigerian-ghanaian-blind-girl-child/ (accessed 23 October 2017).

  38. 38.

    ESCR Committee General Comment 5, para 35.

  39. 39.

    Decision of 8 October 1997.

  40. 40.

    Beiter, The protection of the right to education by international law, 303.

  41. 41.

    Beiter, The protection of the right to education by international law, 508–509.

  42. 42.

    K. Akyeampong, R. Sabates, F. Hunt, and J. Anthony, “Review of research on basic education provision in Nigeria,” available at http://www.academia.edu/257936/Review_of_Research_on_Basic_Education_Provision_in_Nigeria (accessed 7 May 2017).

  43. 43.

    K. Ajayi and M. Adeyemi, “Universal Basic Education (UBE) policy implementation in facilities provisions: Ogun State as a case study,” International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications (2011): 35.

  44. 44.

    G. O. Udo and A. P. Chuks, “Effect of design, layout and management of primary school facilities on performance of pupils,” available at http://www.aibuma.org/archive/proceedings/…/Chukwu,%20Nigeria.doc‎(accessed 24 September 2017).

  45. 45.

    T. Moja, “Nigeria education sector analysis: An analytical synthesis of performance and main issues,” 10, produced for the World Bank (2000), available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NIGERIAEXTN/Resources/ed_sec_analysis.pdf (accessed 24 September 2017).

  46. 46.

    “Girls’ education: Towards a better future for all,” 9, published by the Department for International Development (2005), available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/development/docs/girlseducation.pdf (accessed 14 October 2017).

  47. 47.

    See generally U. Fredriksson, “Quality education: The teachers’ key role,” Workshop 4, 1, Education International, available at www.ibe.unesco.org (accessed 4 December 2017).

  48. 48.

    K. Kazeem and O. Ige, “Redressing the growing concern of the education sector in Nigeria,” Edo Journal of Counselling 3(1) (2010): 45.

  49. 49.

    The assumption here is that students of education are better equipped to impact knowledge , by virtue of the training and exposure as teachers. The process of learning various teaching pedagogy cannot be overemphasised and there needs to be some level of adherence. It is also assumed that this will further enhance the professional status of the teaching profession.

  50. 50.

    Primary schools in Anambra State did not operate for one calendar year in 2001 because teachers were owed salaries and the NUT was on strike. The effect was that children whose parents could not afford to travel to other states in the federation lost one academic year and could not proceed with their studies. For information on the number of strike actions by primary schools teachers in Nigeria, see the following links: “Primary school teachers end strike in Edo,” available at http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/07/primary-school-teachers-end-strike-in-edo/ (accessed 31 October 2017); “No going back on primary school teachers strike in Kogi—NUT,” available at http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/07/no-going-back-on-primary-school-teachers-strike-in-kogi-nut/ (accessed 31 October 2017); “The silence of government of the Cross River State of Nigeria on the current teachers strike is worrisome,” available at http://www.elombah.com/index.php/articles-mainmenu/17884-the-silence-of-government-of-the-cross-river-state-of-nigeria-on-the-current-teachers-strike-is-worrisome (accessed 31 October 2017).

  51. 51.

    Kazeem and Ige, “Redressing the growing concern of the education sector in Nigeria,” 45.

  52. 52.

    M. A. Adelabu, “Teacher motivation and incentives in Nigeria,” (2005), available at http://www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/1/document/0709/Teacher_motivation_Nigeria.pdf (accessed 31 October 2017).

  53. 53.

    Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature, 2.

  54. 54.

    Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature, 10.

  55. 55.

    Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” 3.

  56. 56.

    During an interaction with Michelo Hansungule in the office during the process of writing this thesis, Hansungule hinges his argument on the fact that the African Charter places obligations on individuals, that wealthy African individuals must take a cue from their counterparts in the USA and Europe by committing substantial amounts of money towards education support and research.

  57. 57.

    This argument is advanced with the caveat that the government must not envisage it as a leeway of abdicating its obligations under international law. It is noted that no matter the participation of individuals and communities, the provision of adequate quality education is the core responsibility of the government.

  58. 58.

    Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” 3.

  59. 59.

    Boko Haram has continued in the north-eastern states of Nigeria since 2010, see generally http://www.aljazeera.com/topics/organisations/boko-haram.html (accessed 22 January 2018).

  60. 60.

    M. I. Tsiga, “Killing of NYSC members: My worst moment,” available at http://leadership.ng/news/111013/killing-nysc-members-my-worst-moment-tsiga (accessed 31 October 2017).

  61. 61.

    Tsiga, “Killing of NYSC members: My worst moment.”

  62. 62.

    Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” 9.

  63. 63.

    C. I. Ofulue, “Literacy at a distance in multilingual contexts: Issues and challenges,” International Review of Open and Distance Learning (2011): 84.

  64. 64.

    United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/61/266, February 21 is declared as International Mother Language Day. According to UNESCO ‘the date represents the day in 1952 when students demonstrating for recognition of their language, Bangla, as one of the two national languages of the then Pakistan, were shot and killed by police in Dhaka, the capital of what is now Bangladesh’. See http://www.un.org/en/events/motherlanguageday/ (accessed 24 October 2017).

  65. 65.

    The EFA report of 2005 states the importance of language in enhancing literacy when it opines clearly that learning in one’s mother tongue naturally improves the ability to learn other languages and also improves literacy and educational development.

  66. 66.

    A. B. Fafunwa, “An integrated primary school curriculum scheme in Nigeria: A six year project,” in A. Afolayan (ed), Yoruba language and literature (1982), 15. http://fafunwafoundation.tripod.com/fafunwafoundation/id9.html (accessed 24 December 2017).

  67. 67.

    Adegbite, “Languages and the challenges of education in Nigeria,” 21–22.

  68. 68.

    Adegbite, “Languages and the challenges of education in Nigeria,” 13.

  69. 69.

    Adegbite, “Languages and the challenges of education in Nigeria,” 14. See generally Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature.

  70. 70.

    For further insight into the multilingual situation in Nigeria, see generally Efurosibina E. Adegbija, Multilingualism: A Nigerian case study (Abeokuta: African Word Press, 2003); L. Aronin and D. Singleton, Multilingualism: Impact studies in language and society (The Netherlands: John Benjamin, 2012), particularly chapter 5 where multilingual and personal development is discussed. It is underscored in chapter 79 that the link between language and identity is strong as it goes to the extent of defining the identity and personality of an individual. It follows, therefore, that the role of languages in basic education is crucial as it is a means of preserving the identity of a child as the child grows up in society.

  71. 71.

    F. de Varennes, “International and comparative perspectives in the use of official languages models and approaches for South Africa,” (2012), Centre for Human Rights, University. During the presentation of this report, the author was opportune to interact with De Varennes on the crucial role of language in education, especially with the difficulty it presents. It is De Varennes’s opinion that the place of language must be sustained by the government, whatever the economic implications. This, he advanced largely on the relationship between dignity and language and the fact that language was a major source of ethnic violence.

  72. 72.

    K. D. Beiter, “The protection of the right to education by international law,” International Studies in Human Rights (2006): 425.

  73. 73.

    Beiter, “The protection of the right to education by international law,” 427.

  74. 74.

    (No 1) (1967), Series A, No 5 (1979–1980) 1 EHRR 241 (No 2) (1968), Series A, No 6 (1979–1980) 1 EHRR 252.

  75. 75.

    Application  25781/94.

  76. 76.

    See para 276, http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-59454#{‘itemid’:[‘001-59454 (accessed 31 October 2017).

  77. 77.

    See para 278, http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-59454#{‘itemid’:[‘001-59454 (accessed 31 October 2017) (my emphasis).

  78. 78.

    “Girls’ education: Towards a better future for all,” (2005), 4, published by the Department for International Development. The DFID report further enumerates other important factors regarding the education of the girl child by an ability to avoid poverty by women with basic education, better employment and healthy living of both the woman and the children.

  79. 79.

    “Girls’ education: Towards a better future for all,” (2005), 2, published by the Department for International Development.

  80. 80.

    These statistics have received some criticism by people in Nigeria. Governor Fashola of Lagos State in his comments during the governors’ forum, monitored on television channels, questions the basis of the statistics. In a bid to ascertain the actual number of out of school children, Nigeria plans to have a census of children in school. See generally http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/139547-nigeria-plans-census-of-out-of-school-children.html (accessed 26 May 2014).

  81. 81.

    D. Ofoha, “Gender stereotypes and girl-child education in Nigeria,” available at http://pcfpapers.colfinder.org/bitstream/handle/5678/11/Paper%2019%20%20(Supplementary%20File).pdf?sequence=1 (accessed 15 October 2017).

  82. 82.

    For the impact of religion and activities of the Boko Haram group see generally O. Abdulrasheed, A. Onuselogu, and G. O. Uzoechina, “Effects of insurgency on Universal Basic Education in Borno State of Nigeria,” American Journal of Educational Research 3(4) (2015): 490.

  83. 83.

    For the impact of violence on educational development in a country, see generally B. Barakat and H. Urdal, “Breaking the waves? Does education mediate the relationship between youth bulges and political violence?” (2009), available at https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/1813-9450-5114 (accessed 21 October 2017).

  84. 84.

    J. O. Arowosegbe, “Violence and national development in Nigeria: The political economy of youth restiveness in the Niger delta,” African Political Economy 36(122) (2009): 575. While Arowosegbe comments more on the impact of violence on economic life of Nigeria with particular respect, he notes that the influence of violence on other spheres of the nation’s development also abounds.

  85. 85.

    The effects of religious, domestic and electoral violence have at different times had a serious impact on the existence and enjoyment of social services like education in Nigeria. For instance, in domestic violence, the girl child has suffered severely by not being allowed access to school or being subjected to domestic help. During electoral violence, unassuming pupils are engaged by politicians to engage in several forms of violence. In some instances, the already insufficient educational facilities are destroyed in the process of violence. For further insight into the different forms of violence underscored, see generally O. N. Aihie, “Prevalence of domestic violence in Nigeria: Implications for counselling,” Edo Journal of Counselling 2(1) (2009): 1; N. O. Obakhedo, “Curbing electoral violence in Nigeria: The imperative of political education,” International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia 5(5), Serial 22 (2011): 99.

  86. 86.

    http://www.protectingeducation.org/news/nigeria-school-attendance-down-after-boko-haram-attacks (accessed 13 November 2017).

  87. 87.

    A state-by-state literacy status compiled by the Commission covering 2008–2010 shows that very few states have done well. Most of the states in the north-east and north-west zones have not done well at literacy level. Borno State has only 14.5% of literate population; Gombe has 39%; Jigawa has 24%; while Katsina has 21%. Those doing well are Lagos with 92%; Anambra has 75.1%, Abia has 72.5% while Ekiti has 74.7%. FCT has 61.4%. See http://nigerianpilot.com/index.php/-other-section/-features/4085-the-challenges-of-mass-illiteracy-in-nigeria (accessed 13 November 2017).

  88. 88.

    http://www.irinnews.org/report/98878/boko-haram-violence-takes-toll-on-education (accessed 21 October 2017).

  89. 89.

    “Nigeria: ‘Keep away from schools or we’ll kill you’: Right to education under attack in Nigeria,” http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR44/019/2013/en (accessed 21 October 2017).

  90. 90.

    For the video clip, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bS-5v-QhWug (accessed 21 October 2017).

  91. 91.

    There exists the need therefore for the government agencies responsible for the development of basic education curriculum to ensure that communities, parents and all other relevant institutions are effectively engaged towards building a robust model of basic education that will be accessible and adaptable. This concern is treated in detail in section 6.7 of the thesis.

  92. 92.

    S. A. Ekanem and E. N. Ekefre, “Education and religious intolerance in Nigeria: The need for essencism as a philosophy,” Journal of Educational and Social Research 3(2) (2013): 303–310, 305. Yusuf recommends that a change in curriculum and implementation has some potentials in limiting the challenges fronted by religion, see H. O. Yusuf, “Promoting peaceful co-existence and religious tolerance through supplementary readers and reading comprehension passages in basic education curriculum,” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 3(8) (2013): 224.

  93. 93.

    Y. Sen, “Challenges and prospects of Nigeria’s development at 50,” Golden Jubilee Symposium Paper at Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, available at https://carleton.ca/africanstudies/wp-content/uploads/yima-sen-lecture.pdf (accessed 10 January 2018).

  94. 94.

    K. Ajayi and M. Adeyemi, “Universal Basic Education (UBE) policy implementation in facilities provisions: Ogun State as a case study,” International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, April–June 2(2) (2011): 43.

  95. 95.

    Ajayi and Adeyemi, “Universal Basic Education (UBE) policy implementation in facilities provisions: Ogun State as a case study” (my emphasis).

  96. 96.

    N. A. Ndiyo, “A dynamic analysis of education and economic growth in Nigeria,” The Journal of Developing Areas 41(1) (2007): 3. Ndiyo further asserts that in Nigeria ‘education has utilised large amounts of the country’s resources because of the perception that education is important to the unity of the country’. See n. 4.

  97. 97.

    Sen, “Challenges and prospects of Nigeria’s development at 50,” 12.

  98. 98.

    The United Nations Global Programme Against Corruption (GPAC).

  99. 99.

    F. Waziri, “Chairman’s opening remarks,” CLEEN Foundation Monograph Series No 7 (2010): 1.

  100. 100.

    Sen, “Challenges and prospects of Nigeria’s development at 50,” 10.

  101. 101.

    C. A. Odinkalu, “Corruption and governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria?” CLEEN Foundation Monograph Series No 7 (2010): 16.

  102. 102.

    T. N. Madonsela, “Corruption and governance challenges: The South African experience,” CLEEN Foundation Monograph Series No 7 (2010): 45.

  103. 103.

    Madonsela, “Corruption and governance challenges: The South African experience.”

  104. 104.

    India is not absolved from the menace of corruption in education. The recent cases of serious examination malpractice raise issues of concern on the level of corruption in India. See generally J. A. Ogunji, “Examination management and examination malpractice: The nexus,” Journal of International Education Research (2011): 53; First class exam malpractice in Bihar India, available at http://cynthiasbay.blogspot.com/2015/03/first-class-exam-malpractice-in-bihar.html (accessed 17 April 2017).

  105. 105.

    N. Ribadu, “Obstacles to effective prosecution of corrupt practices and financial crime cases in Nigeria,” available at http://www.nigerianlawguru.com/articles/criminal%20law%20and%20procedure/OBSTACLES%20TO%20EFFECTIVE%20PROSECUTION%20OF%20CORRUPT%20%20PRACTICES%20&%20FINANCIAL%20CRIMES%20IN%20NIGERIA.pdf (accessed 26 May 2017).

  106. 106.

    Odinkalu, “Corruption and governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria?”; G. O. Adeleke, “Prosecuting corruption and the application of plea bargaining in Nigeria: A critique,” International Journal of Advanced Legal Studies and Governance 3 (2012): 53.

  107. 107.

    Odinkalu, “Corruption and governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria?” 31.

  108. 108.

    Odinkalu, “Corruption and governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria?” 35.

  109. 109.

    M. A. Mkpa, “Overview of educational development: Pre-colonial to present,” available at http://www.onlinenigeria.com/education/?blurb=534 (accessed 23 October 2017).

  110. 110.

    The budgetary commitment of the federal government on education management at primary level will be discussed in further detail in the next chapter.

  111. 111.

    Chinua Achebe, The trouble with Nigeria (Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1983). In this work, Achebe captures the paucity of the Nigerian nation and blames corruption for the decline of both human and social capital of a nation he describes as possessing great potential.

  112. 112.

    Suit ECW/CCJ/APP/12/07; Judgment ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10.

  113. 113.

    Arts 1, 2, 17, 21 & 22.

  114. 114.

    Suit ECW/CCJ/APP/12/07; Judgment ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10, Relief 1.

  115. 115.

    Suit ECW/CCJ/APP/12/07; Judgment ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10, Relief 3.

  116. 116.

    Suit ECW/CCJ/APP/12/07; Judgment ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10, Relief 3, para 28.

  117. 117.

    Suit ECW/CCJ/APP/12/07; Judgment ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10, Relief 2, para 27.

  118. 118.

    Abbass, “Community participation in education: Challenges and prospects in Nigeria’s democracy,” 3.

  119. 119.

    See generally Ngugi, Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature.

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  1. University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

    Dr. A. C. Onuora-Oguno

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Onuora-Oguno, A.C. (2019). Obstacles Affecting Access to Basic Education. In: Development and the Right to Education in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90335-4_3

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