Abstract
In a comparative historical analysis, this chapter shows that violence developed in three different paths in Central America and the Caribbean. Initially, oligarchies came to power through monopolizing landed property. These oligarchies blocked the subalterns’ access to economic surplus. This created particular opportunities for vertical violence. The chapter shows in the case of El Salvador that although vertical violence erupted in the 1930s and the 1970s and 1980s, horizontal violence is found on an even deeper level. Forms of violence developed in El Salvador through activating cultural scripts of honor, which are rooted in the cultural and economic independence of peasant communities. The case of Jamaica, in contrast, shows that slavery impeded the development of autonomous scripts of violence. Instead, slaves appropriated colonial scripts of violence. Belize exposes similarities to both other cases. The Great Depression of the 1930s ruptured these three different paths. In El Salvador, the forming state co-opted yet existing horizontal violence and integrated it into its capacity of repression. In the 1970s and 1980s, the forming guerrilla was able to fabricate a completely new cultural script of violence. Jamaica highlights that rent channeling led to new forms of violence. These forms of violence then became linked to cultural scripts, especially to party identities. Again, Belize is a hybrid in this regard. Here, both the co-optation of horizontal violence as well as rent channeling and party identities play a crucial role in forming violence.
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Notes
- 1.
Indigo is a blue dye used for textiles in Europe and the Andes.
- 2.
Logwood is a native dyewood used in European textile manufacturing.
- 3.
The term ladino refers to formerly indigenous peasants who left their communities and became enculturated into Spanish Colonial culture. In the nineteenth century, the meaning of ladino changed. Before that, ladino referred to anyone not identified as either white or Indian.
- 4.
Coffee cultivation is particularly prone to rent appropriation. Since between planting the tree (the initial investment) and the first harvest usually four to five years pass, the supply for coffee is inelastic. At the same time, the demand structure of coffee is equally inelastic. As an effect, prices are volatile and particularly subject to manipulations.
- 5.
Great Britain integrated their colonies in two steps: initially, Barbados, Jamaica, and North America in the period between 1600 and 1650. In a subsequent step after 1750, other major colonies were acquired. Increasing military conflicts in the Caribbean forced Spain to retreat from Jamaica after the battle of Ocho Rios. With the Treaty of Madrid in 1670, Spain recognized British naval superiority.
- 6.
The slave trade was abolished in 1807. Slavery was abolished in Jamaica in 1834. Slaves were however bound under the system of apprenticeship until 1838. The plantation was mainly owned by an absentee and managed by whites who lived in Jamaica. The bureaucratic apparatus managed the whole economic process. Work itself was done by slaves. For the economic rational of plantations vs. other types of production systems, see Wolf and Mintz (1977).
- 7.
The racial nature of the oligarchy is evident. Until now, race is a common but complex category of interpreting social inequalities in Jamaica (Thomas, 2004). Inherent to this society was and still is that class and race overlap (Smith, 1965). Although it may sound unfamiliar to talk about “white,” “brown,” and “black” social groups, this is a longstanding social science tradition in Jamaica.
- 8.
The colonial “state” in its initial phase therefore grew through control of labor and repression (Bulmer-Thomas, 2012). Coercion and denied access to land therefore was the initial idea behind state formation. In theory, both for the state as well as the planter elite, which in reality converged, increasing population should have provoked a switch in its behavior. While formerly labor was controlled though coercion and repression, an increasing labor surplus meant that the elite no longer needed to exclusively rely on repression. However, in the Jamaican case, this modest response of the elites is doubtful, since harsh punishments of even minor crimes continued (Paton, 2001, p. 284)
- 9.
Mintz (1996, p. 96) distinguishes between proto-peasants, who “are slaves who later became peasant freedmen, either through emancipation (as in the case of Jamaica) or revolution (as in the case of Haiti)” and runaway peasants or maroons, “which were formed by escaping slavery rather than by submitting it.” Indeed, larger maroon communities were founded instantly after the Spanish defeat. Two larger communities excel: the Leeward and the Windward communities. With the end of the First Maroon War in 1739/40, the British Navy came to recognize that it could not destroy maroon communities in Jamaica and searched for a peace agreement. The maroons in contrast had to accept that they have to continue to chase runaway slaves. The Second Maroon War in 1795/96 effectively proved this treaty (Price, 2003; Thompson, 2006; Wright, 1970).
- 10.
Although the transition towards Crown Colony created several new central institutions, the Crown’s authority fit into yet existing structures of power. The plantocracy still dominated large segments of the economy and even controlled the institutions newly created by the Crown (e.g. banana marketing agencies, local credit banks, local Justices of Peace). At the parish level, the power of the elite therefore remained intact (Post, 1969, p. 386).
- 11.
Banana exports as a share of total exports increased considerably in the latter third of the nineteenth century. In 1870, banana production was virtually non-existent. In 1890, it made up19.1 percent of exports, in 1910 it made up 52 percent (Eisner, 1961, p. 238). Although banana production was dominated by metropolitan capital, a significant number of small peasants was engaged in banana production (Wiley, 2008, p. 75). However, in line with this trend, internal stratification among the peasantry developed with some peasants remaining in subsistence production and others buying additional land to get engaged in export. By 1890, peasants were producing almost 39 percent of cash crops, and 75 percent of total agricultural produce (Post, 1978, p. 37)
- 12.
Belize’s initial name was British Honduras. The name changed to Belize in 1973. Throughout this study, Belize will be used.
- 13.
The question of land ownership in Belize is very complex. Since the British Empire did not claim sovereignty on the settlement until the official establishment of Crown Colony in 1862, the legal status of land was unclear. At least since the late eighteenth century, Great Britain did exercise de facto sovereignty (Bolland & Shoman, 1977).
- 14.
More important than mahogany land initially was access to the rivers since the mahogany trees had to be cut on sight and then floated to the mouth of the rivers. Land tenure therefore developed with the claim on land nearby the rivers (Ashcraft, 1973, p. 29).
- 15.
Among the most important ones was the rebellion in 1831 under the leadership of Samuel Sharp. The 1831 Rebellion, in which already more than 20,000 slaves may have been involved, provoked a mayor violent reaction of the oligarchy. More than 200 slaves were killed during the rebellion and another 300 were executed later on (Reckord, 1968, p. 122). Furthermore, in 1865 the Morant Bay rebellion broke out. Generally, civil unrest after Emancipation concerned concrete issues, such as personal freedom, access to land, and wages (Craton, 1996). Slave rebellions were frequent throughout the whole period of slavery.
- 16.
See, e.g., Johnson and Lipsett-Rivera (1998) for a detailed discussion of honor violence in distance to superior authorities and for the different notions that honor violence had as soon as it got attached to a superior political level in colonial Latin America.
- 17.
Spanish Original: “Se ven por las calles multidud de ninos vagos, sin oficio, sin concurrir á la escuela sin que se sepa á qué los dedican sus padres, y sin que nadie cuido de su conducta y educacion … No hai quien no porte bajo la camisa puñales y otras armas prohibidas de dia y de noche, en la ciudad y en el campo.”
- 18.
The police force in El Salvador from this time on was split in three different bodies. The Guardia Nacional, formed in 1912, was obliged to control the countryside; the Policía de Hacienda founded in the last decades of the nineteenth century initially with the aim of combatting smugglers and controlling the production and distribution of alcohol; and the Policía Nacional, which was created to particularly control urban areas.
- 19.
Initially, the Jamaican Worker’s Trade Union (JWTU) was founded in 1935. Bustamante, however, was expelled in 1937; in the same year he founded the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (BITU), which led to the foundation of the Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) in 1943. In opposition, Norman Manley founded the People’s National Party (PNP) in 1938 and, inspired by the Fabian labor movement, the Trade Union Congress (TUC) as the labor movement wing of the PNP in 1939 (Hart, 1999).
- 20.
Citrus in the South of Belize (mainly in Stan Creek) is almost exclusively produced for export to the United States and the United Kingdom. Around 95 percent of the crop is destined for exportation. Producers of citrus include smallholders, independent medium- and large-scale producers, as well as corporate estates owned by international processing companies. Even though citrus production is concentrated on a small number of farms, less than 40 percent of citrus is grown on company estates (Moberg, 1991). Thus, production relies on the capacities of small-scale producers. The same applies to sugar, which is mainly planted in Orange Walk in the north. With the increasing significance of sugar, “medium sized cash crop producers” (Brockmann, 1985, p. 188) engaged in the production.
- 21.
Spanish Original: “(…) eran pequeñas riñas que terminaban al intervenir los agentes de la policía. Después ciertos estudiantes usaron hebillas gigantes en los cinchos, para golpear a los de la barra contraria; siguió el empleo de las piedras, ladrillos y garrotes como armas contundentes. El progreso de barbarie continuó (…). Y ahora, salen a relucir armas de fuego, se siguen lanzando piedras con la consiguiente destrucción y se golpea a sacerdotes.”
- 22.
These sources are derived from the critical analysis of newspapers from 1945 to 1980. The Estudios Centroamericanos presents as a valuable source as it published uncommented press overviews until the end of the 1970s.
- 23.
Spanish Original: “[e]l día primero del año – podriamos tomar cual quier otro día por vía de ejemplo – fue una fecha sangrienta para El Salvador (…) [con] (…) un saldo de 21 muertos y 21 heridos graves. Y no ha habido revolución, ni acontecimiento ninguno de carácter público (…) No ha sido más que brotes esporádicos de un mal popular que ca cundiendo como pedemos comprobarlo a diario en la prensa”.
- 24.
Spanish Original: “La delincuencia toma en El Salvador caracteres cada vez más graves y amenazantes (…). En los últimos días San Salvador vivió momentos de pánico cuando varios ladrones en pleno día y en el centro de la capital fueron sitiados durante varias horas por numerosos agentes policiales pesadamente armados, en el interior de estavlecemientos comerciales dondo pretendían robar, y unos y otros hicieron uso de armas de fuego habiendo resultado una persona muerta y dos lesionadas, actos reveladores de la gravedad de la situación.”
- 25.
The first of these housing programs occurred in West Kingston in 1966 under JLP government. Black-o-Wall, a huge squatter settlement and one of the most deprived areas of Kingston, was destroyed by bulldozers and the Tivoli Gardens housing complex was created. The JLP boss in this area, Edward Seaga, who became prime minister in 1980, was one of the leading figures associated with the construction of Tivoli Gardens (Gray, 1991, p. 119). In the aftermath, living spaces were exclusively granted to JLP supporters. PNP supporters who formerly saw their houses destroyed by bulldozers, in contrast, were not allocated.
- 26.
Increasingly, the Phoenix City Gang allied with the JLP and the Vikings with the PNP . Moreover, Edward Seaga, who became Minister of Development and Welfare in 1962, used his organizational resources to integrate West Kingston youth and particularly gang members into the Youth Development Agency (Gray, 2004, pp. 80–85). As an effect, Youth Development Agency “affiliation was soon regarded as tantamount to JLP affiliation.”
- 27.
- 28.
Jamaica has long experienced outward as well as returning migration. A first phase can be dated immediately after Abolition; a second phase began in the early twentieth century when large numbers of workers migrated towards Panama to build the canal. That was followed by a third phase in the years before independence when many Jamaicans left the island to find proper work in the United Kingdom. Finally, a fourth phase began during the second term of Manley’s government (Thomas-Hope, 1992).
- 29.
The irony of Belizean SAPs was that many of these companies were bought by Lord Ashcroft, a British multimillionaire and the Tory’s largest donor. While his Belize Bank accounted for almost 50 percent of banking in Belize, “it faced 80 separate charges of failing to comply with anti-money-laundering laws – charges the bank firmly denied – the case was withdrawn for fear that any damage to the bank would trigger the collapse of the Belizean economy” (The Guardian, 2009). He additionally owned the national telecommunication company, the shrimp register, the offshore business register, and a TV company, if not more.
- 30.
The Truth Commission of 1993 found that state and para-state forces were responsible for 85 percent of violations against civilians (Naciones Unidas, 1993, p. 41).
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Warnecke-Berger, H. (2019). The Roots of Current Violence: Historical Comparative Perspectives on El Salvador, Jamaica, and Belize, 1500–1980. In: Politics and Violence in Central America and the Caribbean. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89782-0_3
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