Abstract
This chapter predominantly discuss about the role of Local site conditions on the amplification of seismic waves and the resulted earthquake disasters. In-depth discussions are made on the various local site conditions which influence the ground shaking. Different available methods for the assessing the local site conditions are presented in this chapter. Various codal provisions for site classifications are also discussed here. This chapter also presents the assessment of local site effect at micro and macro-level using the appropriate methodologies.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
AFPS, F.A.F.E.E.: Guidelines for Seismic Microzonation Studies. Delegation of Major Risks of the French Ministry of the Environment-Direction for Prevention, Pollution and Risks (1995)
Aki, K.: Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves, with special reference to microtremors. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst., Univ. Tokyo 35, 415–456 (1957)
Aki, K.: Local site effects on ground motion. In: Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics II-Recent Advances in Ground Motion Evaluation. Geotechnical Special Publication, vol. 20, pp. 103–155 (1988)
Anbazhagan, P.: Site Characterization and Seismic Hazard Analysis with Local Site Effects for Microzonation of Bangalore. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (2007)
Andrews, D.: Objective determination of source parameters and similarity of earthquakes of different size. In: Earthquake Source Mechanics, pp. 259–267. American Geophysical Union, Washington (1986)
Astroza, M., Monge, J.: Seismic microzones in the city of Santiago. Relation damage-geological unit. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Seismic Zonation, vol. 3, pp. 25–29 (1991)
Atkinson, G.M., Cassidy, J.F.: Integrated use of seismograph and strong-motion data to determine soil amplification: response of the Fraser river delta to the Duvall and Georgia Strait earthquakes. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 90(4), 1028–1040 (2000)
Bard, P.Y., Tucker, B.E.: Underground and ridge site effects: a comparison of observation and theory. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 75(4), 905–922 (1985)
Bard, P.Y., Duval, A.M., Lebrun, B., Lachet, C., Riepl J. Hatzfeld, D.: Reliability of the H/V technique for site effects measurement: an experimental assessment. Seventh International Conference on Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Istanbul (1997)
Beresnev, I., Wen, K., Yeh, Y.: Nonlinear soil amplification: its corroboration in Taiwan. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 85(2), 496–515 (1995)
Bonilla, L.F., Steidl, J.H., Lindley, G.T., Tumarkin, A.G., Archuleta, R.J.: Site amplification in the San Fernando Valley, California: variability of site-effect estimation using the s-wave, coda, and h/v methods. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 87(3), 710–730 (1997)
Boore, D.: Stochastic simulation of high-frequency ground motions based on seismological models of the radiated spectra. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 73(6A), 1865–1894 (1983)
Boore, D.: Simulation of ground motion using the stochastic method. Pure Appl. Geophys. 160, 635–676 (2003)
Boore, D., Joyner, W., Fumal, T.: Estimation of response spectra and peak accelerations from Western North American earthquakes: an Interim Report. US Geological Survey, Menlo Park (1993)
Borcherdt, R.: Estimates of site-dependent response spectra for design (methodology and justification). Earthq. Spectra 10, 617–617 (1994)
Borcherdt, R.: Preliminary amplification estimates inferred from strong ground motion recordings of the Northridge earthquake of January 17, 1994. In: Proceeding of the International Workshop on Site Response Subjected to Strong Ground Motion (1996)
Borcherdt, R.D.: Empirical evidence for acceleration-dependent amplification factors. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 92(2), 761–782 (2002)
Borcherdt, R., Gibbs, J.: Effects of local geological conditions in the San Francisco bay region on ground motions and the intensities of the 1906 earthquake. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 66(2), 467–500 (1976)
Borcherdt, R.D., Glassmoyer, G.: Influences of local geology on strong and weak ground motions recorded in the San Francisco Bay region, p. 77. US Geological Survey Professional Paper (1994)
Borcherdt, R., Wentworth, C., Glassmoyer, G., Fumal, T., Mork, P., Gibbs, J.: On the observation, characterization and predictive GIS mapping of ground response in the San Francisco Bay region, California. In: Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Seismic Zonation, Stanford, pp. 545–552 (1991)
Bouckovalas, G., Kouretzis, G.: A review of soil and topography effects in Athens 09/07/199 (Greece) earthquake. In: Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, San Diego, March (in CDROM) (2001)
Bouckovalas, G.D., Papadimitriou, A.G.: Numerical evaluation of slope topography effects on seismic ground motion. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 25(7), 547–558 (2005)
Brune, J.N.: Preliminary results on topographic seismic amplification effect on a foam rubber model of the topography near Pacoima Dam. In: Proceeding of the 8th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, vol. 2, pp. 663–670 (1984)
Campillo, M., Bard, P., Nicollin, F., Sánchez-Sesma, F.: The Mexico earthquake of September 19, 1985 – the incident wavefield in Mexico city during the great Michoacán earthquake and its interaction with the deep basin. Earthq. Spectra 4(3), 591–608 (1988)
Chávez-GarcÃa, F.J., Sánchez, L., Hatzfeld, D.: Topographic site effects and HVSR a comparison between observations and theory. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 86(5), 1559–1573 (1996)
Chouet, B., De Luca, G., Milana, G., Dawson, P., Martini, M., Scarpa, R.: Shallow velocity structure of Stromboli Volcano, Italy, derived from small-aperture array measurements of Strombolian tremor. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 88(3), 653–666 (1998)
Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources (CGER): Ground Water at Yucca Mountain: How High Can It Rise? National Academies Press, Washington (1992)
Davis, L.L., West, L.R.: Observed effects of topography on ground motion. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 63(1), 283–298 (1973)
Evernden, J., Thomson, J.: Predicting seismic intensities. In: Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los Angeles Region – An Earth-Science Perspective, vol. 1360, pp. 151–202. US Geological Survey Professional Paper (1985)
Faccioli, E.: Seismic amplification in the presence of geological and topographic irregularities. In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, pp. 11–15 (1991)
Fah, D., Iodice, C., Suhadolc, P., Panza, G.: Application of numerical simulations for a tentative seismic microzonation of the city of Rome. Ann. Geophys. 38(5–6), 607–615 (1995)
Field, E., Jacob, K.: The theoretical response of sedimentary layers to ambient seismic noise. Geophys. Res. Lett. 20(24), 2925–2928 (1993)
Gazetas, G.: Seismic response of earth dams: some recent developments. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 6(1), 2–47 (1987)
Gazetas, G., Dakoulas, P.: Seismic analysis and design of rockfill dams: state-of-the-art. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 11(1), 27–61 (1992)
Geli, L., Bard, P., Jullien, B.: The effect of topography on earthquake ground motion: a review and new results. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 78(1), 42–63 (1988)
Gitterman, Y., Zaslavsky, Y., Shapira, A., Shtivelman, V.: Empirical site response evaluations: case studies in Israel. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 15(7), 447–463 (1996)
Haghshenas, E., Bard, P., Theodulidis, N.: Empirical evaluation of microtremor h/v spectral ratio. Bull. Earthq. Eng. 6(1), 75–108 (2008)
Hartzell, S.: Earthquake aftershocks as Green’s functions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 5(1), 1–4 (1978)
Hartzell, S., Cranswick, E., Frankel, A., Carver, D., Meremonte, M.: Variability of site response in the Los Angeles urban area. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 87(6), 1377–1400 (1997)
Hartzell, S., Carver, D., Cranswick, E., Frankel, A.: Variability of site response in Seattle, Washington. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 90(5), 1237–1250 (2000)
Hashash, Y.M.A., Groholski, D., Phillips, C., Park, D., Musgrove, M.: DEEPSOIL 4.0, User Manual and Tutorial. US Geological Survey, Washington (2011)
Idriss, I., Sun, J.: User’s Manual for shake91. Center for Geotechnical Modeling, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Davis (1992)
Irikura, K.: Semi-empirical estimation of strong ground motions during large earthquakes. Bull. Disaster Prev. Res. Inst. Kyoto Univ. 33(2), 63–104 (1983)
ISSMGE, T.: Manual for Zonation on Seismic Geotechnical Hazard. International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE). The Japanese Geotechnical Society, Tokyo (1999)
James, N.: Site characterization and assessment of various earthquake hazards for micro and macro-level seismic zonations of regions in the peninsular India. Ph.D. thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (2013)
James, N., Sitharam, T.: Seismic zonations at micro and macro-level for regions in the peninsular India. Int. J. Geotech. Earthq. Eng. 7(2), 35–63 (2016)
James, N., Sitharam, T., Padmanabhan, G., Pillai, C.: Seismic microzonation of a nuclear power plant site with detailed geotechnical, geophysical and site effect studies. Nat. Hazards 71(1), 419–462 (2014)
Joyner, W., Fumal, T.: Use of measured shear-wave velocity for predicting geologic site effects on strong ground motion. In: Proceeding of the 8th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, vol. 2, pp. 777–783 (1984)
Kagami, H., Okada, S., Ohta, Y.: Versatile application of dense and precision seismic intensity data by an advanced questionnaire survey. In: Proceeding Ninth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 937–942 (1988)
Kanai K., Osada, T., Tanaka, T.: An investigation into the nature of microtremors. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. 32, 199–209 (1954)
Kanai, K.: On microtremors VIII. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. 39, 97–114 (1961)
Kanai, K., Tanaka, T., Morishita, T., Osada, K.: Observation of microtremors. xi.: Matsushiro earthquake swarm area. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. Tokyo Univ. 44(3), 1297–1333 (1967). http://hdl.handle.net/2261/12296
Kaul, M.: Stochastic characterization of earthquakes through their response spectrum. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 6(5), 497–509 (1978)
Khoubbi-Al, I., Adams, J.: Local site effects in Ottawa, Canada–first results from a strong motion network. In: Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper, 2504 (2004)
Konno, K., Ohmachi, T.: Ground-motion characteristics estimated from spectral ratio between horizontal and vertical components of microtremor. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 88(1), 228–241 (1998)
Kramer, S.: Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. Pearson Education, Delhi (1996). Reprinted 2003
Kumar, A.: Software for generation of spectrum compatible time history. In: 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering Vancouver (2004)
Lachet, C., Hatzfeld, D., Bard, P.Y., Theodulidis, N., Papaioannou, C., Savvaidis, A.: Site effects and microzonation in the city of Thessaloniki (Greece) comparison of different approaches. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 86(6), 1692–1703 (1996)
Langston, C.A.: Structure under mount rainier, Washington, inferred from teleseismic body waves. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 84(B9), 4749–4762 (1979)
Lee, M.K., Finn, W.: DESRA-2: dynamic effective stress response analysis of soil deposits with energy transmitting boundary including assessment of liquefaction potential. Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia (1978)
Lee, S.J., Chen, H.W., Liu, Q., Komatitsch, D., Huang, B.S., Tromp, J.: Three-dimensional simulations of seismic-wave propagation in the Taipei basin with realistic topography based upon the spectral-element method. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 98(1), 253–264 (2008)
Lermo, J., Chávez-GarcÃa, F.J.: Site effect evaluation using spectral ratios with only one station. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 83(5), 1574–1594 (1993)
Loh, C.H., Hwang, J.Y., Shin, T.C.: Observed variation of earthquake motion across a Basin – Taipei city. Earthq. Spectra 14(1), 115–133 (1998)
Ma, S., Archuleta, R.J., Page, M.T.: Effects of large-scale surface topography on ground motions, as demonstrated by a study of the San Gabriel mountains, Los Angeles, California. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 97(6), 2066–2079 (2007)
MacMurdo, J.: Papers relating to the earthquake which occurred in India in 1819. Philos. Mag. 63, 105–177 (1824)
Malagnini, L., Rovelli, A., Hough, S., Seeber, L.: Site amplification estimates in the Garigliano Valley, Central Italy, based on dense array measurements of ambient noise. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 83(6), 1744–1755 (1993)
Mallet, R.: Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857. Chapman and Hall, London (1862)
Mayer-Rosa, D., Jimenez, M.: Seismic zoning, recommendations for Switzerland. Landeshydrologie und-geologie, geologischer bericht (1999)
Medvedev, J.: Engineering Seismology, p. 260. Academia Nauk Press, Moscow (1962)
Midorikawa, S.: Prediction of isoseismal map in the Kanto plain due to hypothetical earthquake. J. Struct. Eng. B 33, 43–48 (1987)
Miyakoshi, K., Okada, H.: Estimation of the site response in the Kushiro city, Hokkaido, Japan, using microtremors with seismometer arrays. In: 10th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering (1996)
Moyle, W. Jr.: Ground-water-level monitoring for earthquake prediction; a progress report based on data collected in southern California, 1976–79. Tech. rep., Water Resources Division, US Geological Survey (1980)
Mukhopadhyay, S., Pandey, Y., Dharmaraju, R., Chauhan, P., Singh, P., Dev, A.: Seismic microzonation of Delhi for ground-shaking site effects. Curr. Sci. 82(7), 877–881 (2002)
Nakamura, Y.: A method for dynamic characteristics estimation of subsurface using microtremor on the ground surface, vol. 30(1). Railway Technical Research Institute, Quarterly Reports (1989)
Narayan, J., Sharma, M.: Effects of local geology on damage severity during Bhuj, India earthquake. In: 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver (2004)
Nath, S., Chatterjee, D., Biswas, N., Dravinski, M., Cole, D., Papageorgiou, A., Rodriguez, J., Poran, C.: Correlation study of shear wave velocity in near surface geological formations in anchorage, Alaska. Earthq. Spectra 13(1), 55–75 (1997)
Neelima Satyam, D., Rao, K.: Microtremor studies for seismic site characterization of Delhi region. In: The 12th International Conference of International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), Goa, pp. 2811–2815 (2008)
Fäh, D., Rüttener, E., Noack, T., Kruspan, P.: Microzonation of the city of Basel. J. Seismol. 1(1), 87–102 (1997)
Ohmachi, T., Nakamura, Y., Toshinawa, T.: Ground motion characteristics in the San Francisco bay area detected by microtremor measurements. In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, March, pp. 11–15 (1991)
Ordonez, G.: SHAKE-2000, a Computer Program for the 1-D Analysis of Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Problems, User’s Manual (2000)
Pedersen, H., Le Brun, B., Hatzfeld, D., Campillo, M., Bard, P.Y.: Ground-motion amplitude across ridges. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 84(6), 1786–1800 (1994)
Phillips, W.S., Aki, K.: Site amplification of coda waves from local earthquakes in central California. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 76(3), 627–648 (1986)
Pitilakis, K.: Site effects. In: Recent Advances in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering and Microzonation, pp. 139–197. Springer, Dordrecht (2004)
Prevost, J.: DYNA1D: A Computer Program for Nonlinear Seismic Site Response Analysis Technical Documentation. National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo (1989)
Raghu Kanth, S., Iyengar, R.: Estimation of seismic spectral acceleration in peninsular India. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 116(3), 199–214 (2007)
Reid, H.: The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906, vol. 27. Carnegie Institution, Washington (1910)
Riepl, J., Bard, P.Y., Hatzfeld, D., Papaioannou, C., Nechtschein, S.: Detailed evaluation of site-response estimation methods across and along the sedimentary valley of Volvi (Euro-seistest). Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 88(2), 488–502 (1998)
Rollins, K., Evans, M., Diehl, N., William D. III: Shear modulus and damping relationships for gravels. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 124(5), 396–405 (1998)
Sánchez-Sesma, F.J.: Diffraction of elastic waves by three-dimensional surface irregularities. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 73(6A), 1621–1636 (1983)
Sánchez-Sesma, F.J.: Diffraction of elastic SH waves by wedges. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 75(5), 1435–1446 (1985)
Sánchez-Sesma, F., Chávez-Pérez, S., Suarez, M., Bravo, M., Pérez-Rocha, L.: The méxico earthquake of 19 September 1985 on the seismic response of the valley of méxico. Earthq. Spectra 4(3), 569–589 (1988)
Schnabel, P.: Effects of local geology and distance from source on earthquake ground motions. University of California, Berkeley (1973)
Schnabel, P., Lysmer, J., Seed, H.: SHAKE: a computer program for earthquake response analysis of horizontally layered sites. Earthquake Engineering Research Center. Report No EERC, pp. 72–12 (1972)
Seed, H., Idriss, I.: Influence of soil conditions on ground motions during earthquakes. University of California, Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Soil Mechanics Laboratory (1969)
Seed, H., Idriss, I.: Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response analyses. Report No. EERC 70-10, University of California, Berkeley (1970)
Seed, H., Sun, J.: Implication of site effects in the Mexico city earthquake of 19 September 1985 for earthquake-resistance-design criteria in the San Francisco bay area of California. Report No. UCB/EERC-89/03, University of California, Berkeley (1989)
Semblat, J.F., Duval, A.M., Dangla, P.: Numerical analysis of seismic wave amplification in nice (France) and comparisons with experiments. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 19(5), 347–362 (2000)
Shima, E.: Seismic microzoning map of Tokyo. In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Microzonation, vol. 1, pp. 433–443 (1978)
Slob, S., Hack, R., Scarpas, T., van Bemmelen, B., Duque, A.: A methodology for seismic microzonation using GIS and Shakea case study from Armenia, Colombia. In: Engineering Geology for Developing Countries – Proceedings of 9th Congress of the International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment, Durban, pp. 16–20 (2002)
Stewart, J., Liu, A., Choi, Y.: Amplification factors for spectral acceleration in tectonically active regions. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 93(1), 332–352 (2003)
Stone, W., Yokel, F., Celebi, M., Hanks, T., Leyendecker, E.: Engineering aspects of the 19 September 1985 Mexico earthquake. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington (1987)
Theodulidis, N., Bard, P.Y.: Horizontal to vertical spectral ratio and geological conditions: an analysis of strong motion data from Greece and Taiwan (smart-1). Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 14(3), 177–197 (1995)
Theodulidis, N., Bard, P.Y., Archuleta, R., Bouchon, M.: Horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio and geological conditions: the case of Garner Valley Downhole Array in southern California. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 86(2), 306–319 (1996)
Tokimatsu, K., Nakajo, Y., Tamura, S.: Horizontal to vertical amplitude ratio of short period microtremors and its relation to site characteristics. J. Struct. Construction Eng. 457, 11–18 (1994)
Topal, T., Doyuran, V., Karahanoğlu, N., Toprak, V., Süzen, M., Yeşilnacar, E.: Microzonation for earthquake hazards: Yenişehir settlement, Bursa, Turkey. Eng. Geol. 70(1), 93–108 (2003)
Towhata, I.: Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. Springer, Dordrecht (2008)
Trifunac, M.D., Hudson, D.E.: Analysis of the pacoima dam accelerogram – San Fernando, California, earthquake of 1971. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 61(5), 1393–1411 (1971)
Trifunac, M., Todorovska, M.: Nonlinear soil response as a natural passive isolation mechanism – the 1994 Northridge, California, earthquake. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 17(1), 41–51 (1998)
Udwadia, F., Trifunac, M.: Comparison of earthquake and microtremor ground motions in El centro, California. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 63(4), 1227–1253 (1973)
USGS: Virginia Well Records Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake. USGS News Release (2005)
Vucetic, M., Dobry, R.: Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response. J. Geotech. Eng. 117(1), 89–107 (1991)
Wills, C.J., Silva, W.: Shear-wave velocity characteristics of geologic units in California. Earthq. Spectra 14(3), 533–556 (1998)
Wood, H.: Distribution of apparent intensity in San Francisco. Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission 1(1906), pp. 220–245 (1908)
Yoshida, N., Suetomi, I.: DYNEQ: a computer program for dynamic analysis of level ground based on equivalent linear method. Reports of Engineering Research Institute, Sato Kogyo, pp. 61–70 (1996)
Zare, M., Bard, P.Y., Ghafory-Ashtiany, M.: Site characterizations for the Iranian strong motion network. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 18(2), 101–123 (1999)
Zhao, F., Zhang, Y.: Artificial ground motion compatible with specified peak velocity and target spectrum. Acta Seismol. Sin. 19(4), 461–471 (2006)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sitharam, T.G., James, N., Kolathayar, S. (2018). Local Site Effects for Seismic Zonation. In: Comprehensive Seismic Zonation Schemes for Regions at Different Scales. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89659-5_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89659-5_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-89658-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-89659-5
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)