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Social-ecological Coviability of the Protected Marine Areas in Brazil: Contradictions in the Co-management of Protected Marine Areas of Brazil to Policies for the Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems

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Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems: Reconnecting Mankind to the Biosphere in an Era of Global Change

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Abstract

“Extractive” reserves (artisanal or reasoned industrial-scale extraction of natural resources) were legally created in 1990 in the Amazon to ensure the lifestyle of small rubber tree (hevea) tappers as well as to preserve the forest. They are the fruit of an intense social mobilization and the support of environmental associations, and the creation of this new protected area extends to the rest of the national territory. In 2000, the National system of Conservation units was adopted and furthers the institutionalization of these protected areas of sustainable use. These are distinguished by the deliberative character of the decisions of their respective management councils, which include a majority of representatives of local traditional communities. This innovation reflects the recognition of traditional environmental knowledge and their role in nature conservation. However, what might seem a step forward in environmental legislation is actually more mixed due to management and territorial conflicts. Despite the challenges, very promising experiments exist and partly reveal necessary factors to ensure stability for traditional peoples, whose relationships with nature still have much to teach to (post) modern societies which are forced to admit the limits of their mode of production and life. This article intends to identify the necessary social organization to guarantee the autonomy of traditional peoples in the management of natural resources, as well as the external conditions which determine the forms of coviability of traditional peoples in modern and globalized society.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Excluding extractive reserves and sustainable development reserves, all protected areas of sustainable use are managed by management councils that are barely advisory.

  2. 2.

    They have 50% of seats plus one in the composition of the Council.

  3. 3.

    Including religious and non-religious persons

  4. 4.

    These are the mobilizations of peaceful resistance of a group - including women, children and elderly -in order to prevent, by the mere presence, the deforestation by wood operating companies.

  5. 5.

    Chico Mendes (1944–1988) was the main leader of the seringueiro movement in the Acre.

  6. 6.

    Cf. Decree 98.897/90.

  7. 7.

    Institutionalization is defined as the set of rules and standards for the satisfaction of collective interests and, as a dialectical movement which, by guaranteeing the routinization of procedures allowing reproducibility and application, appears as the materialization of more general social forms and, of its contradictions, allowing movements in its interior (Cunha 2010, p. 73).

  8. 8.

    Fishermen who have more capital can acquire a boat that allows them to browse further for longer, thus following schools of fish of high commercial value; and therefore, exercising more specialized fishing. Fishermen with less capital use other practices, such as gillnets – that can be fixed to the ground and trap fish-, the collection of shellfish, net fishing on the edge of rivers or mangrove areas, etc. The practices are chosen depending on the seasonality of some catches, climatic conditions, access or no access to a boat. The fisherman adapts to changing conditions throughout the year.

  9. 9.

    They can include interim jobs in building, mechanics, informal trade, etc.

  10. 10.

    By temporarily interrupting fishing during the reproduction of species, fishermen contribute to the conservation of fish stocks through the preservation of female individuals.

  11. 11.

    The Pirajubae extractive reserve was established in the State of Santa Catarina in 1992 and that of Arraial do Cabo in the State of Rio de Janeiro in 1997.

  12. 12.

    Over 80% according to the Census of 2000 (IBGE 2000) or 77% according to the General Cadastre of fisheries of 2008 (MPA, 2003 apud Alencar and Maia 2011).

  13. 13.

    Three new marine extractive reserves were created in the State of Pará by President Roussef during the campaign of the presidential election in 2014.

  14. 14.

    In addition to the example cited in the introduction on the market of carbon credits (Porto-Gonçalves 2006), the work of Tomasoni (2011) provides information on concealed commercial interests regarding alternatives to the greenhouse gases (CFC – Chloro-Fluro-Carbone).

  15. 15.

    The Extractive Reserve Council is chaired by an employee of the federal environmental agency responsible for the management of protected areas, ICMBio.

  16. 16.

    Porto-Gonçalves (2001) points out how traditional environmental knowledge are crucial for advanced science such as, inter alia, bio-technology, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry, among others.

  17. 17.

    Countless scientific references show this, of which barely a few examples will be quoted here: Adams 1994; Castro 1997; Diegues 2000; Souto and Martins 2009; Leff 2004, 2006.

  18. 18.

    Brazil illustrates well that since the extractive reserves were also created among the babaçu coconut harvesters and fishermen, not to mention many other traditional peoples, as the descendants of maroons (called Bushiningues, people that escaped from slavery and settled in the forest) or Amerindians across the country, or even substantive pasture communities in the Northeast region, the geraizeiros of Minas Gerais States and Bahia, the pantaneiros of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, and so on.

  19. 19.

    Largely funded through the PPG-7, commending program for Brazilian rainforest protection, whose major creditor was Germany.

  20. 20.

    This category includes people who treat the catch (ex: cleaning and filleting fish, extraction of the flesh of crustaceans). The activity of these workers is closely associated with fishing and therefore to the seasonality of the latter. However, with Decree 8424, they will no longer receive the salario-defeso.

  21. 21.

    Among the new standards, instead of being able to receive the salario-defeso after 6 months of reported activities, the fishermen will have to prove a year and a half in office before being covered.

  22. 22.

    The ICMBio is a federal body for the environment protection, detached from the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Resources (IBAMA) in 2007 and responsible for the management of protected areas of sustainable use. An employee of the ICMBio responsible for a extractive reserve is called, in a revealing fashion, “Chief”.

  23. 23.

    Underlined by me.

  24. 24.

    Article 17 § 10.

  25. 25.

    IBAMA – a Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources.

  26. 26.

    See: http://www.MMA.gov.br/port/CONAMA/RES/res97/res23797.html

  27. 27.

    This author published in 1968 an article on the tragedy commons property. REfs = The tragedy of the Commons, Science, December 13, 1968, – or communal – thesis criticized for its lack of distinction between access lands and land of Common use, regulated by customary law, not written but based on traditional environmental knowledge.

  28. 28.

    See Isaac, 2006; Santos et Isaac 2014.

  29. 29.

    Mainly palm for the manufacture of oil and straw of the Palm piaçava for the manufacture of sweeping brushes.

  30. 30.

    In the 1930s, cocoa was the first export product of Bahia and the third nationally.

  31. 31.

    The report is undated, but the collected data are from September 2007.

  32. 32.

    It is recalled that extractivists hold 50% of the seats, plus one.

  33. 33.

    The proposed model was an Environmental Protection Area.

  34. 34.

    Parent Association of the Extractive Reserve of Canavieiras (AMEX).

  35. 35.

    The ICMBio had 21 communities forming the extractive reserve, but the study by Viviane Martins (BRASIL 2009) identifies communities that bring several communities together, with the total being more than 80.

  36. 36.

    The MPP is a national organization, which brings together formed organizations across States.

  37. 37.

    For more details on the effects of the hydro-electrical central, see Prost 2007, and as for the shipyard, see Prost 2010.

  38. 38.

    From several days to several weeks.

  39. 39.

    The Government’s interest is obvious when we know that the annual construction of two ships or platforms generate two billion Reals.

  40. 40.

    The trace of both polygonal chains is accessible on the site of the pro-Iguape commission, in the following address: http://comissaoproiguape.WordPress.com/2010/05/19/34/

  41. 41.

    In the two extractive reserves mentioned here, boats vary between motorized canoes (possibly to sailing boats if conditions are good) and small motorboats which make long expeditions on the high seas impossible. Fisheries occur mainly in estuaries and rivers, and to a lesser extent, in coastal zone.

  42. 42.

    Portaria 445 of the ICMBio.

  43. 43.

    Portugal Em, popular names are respectively guaiamum and budiao azul.

  44. 44.

    Crab collectors do not receive the salario-defeso, an income (corresponding to a minimum wage) distributed to fishermen in order not to fish, incorporating the rhythms of nature in public management of resources.

  45. 45.

    Comissão Nacional de Fortalecimento das Reservas Extrativistas Marinhas e Costeiras.

  46. 46.

    Ex: Coordinator construction project of working class houses, BAMEX Community Bank employees, head of the women network - project funded by the UN-women, Secretary of the CONFREM, etc.

  47. 47.

    Environmental management group in coast region, registered at CNPq, coordinated by Catherine Prost.

  48. 48.

    However, by encircling the existing farms, the creation of the extractive reserve prevented thereby institutions from expanding their area.

  49. 49.

    The company is responsible for funding public research on mangroves and rivers of the extractive reserve and financed the renovation or construction of seats of local fishermen associations.

  50. 50.

    Quilombolas em Portuguese.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

    Catherine Prost

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  1. Catherine Prost
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Correspondence to Catherine Prost .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. IRD – French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Olivier Barrière

  2. Center for Research on Environment, Human Security and Governance (CERES), Ibn Zohr University of Agadir, Agadir, Morocco

    Mohamed Behnassi

  3. IRD – French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Gilbert David

  4. IRSTEA National Research Institute of Science and Technology for Environment and Agriculture, Montpellier, France

    Vincent Douzal

  5. IRD – French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Mireille Fargette

  6. University of Montpellier, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Thérèse Libourel

  7. IRD – French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Maud Loireau

  8. University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France

    Laurence Pascal

  9. The Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

    Catherine Prost

  10. The Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil

    Voyner Ravena-Cañete

  11. IRD – French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, UMR ESPACE-DEV, Montpellier, France

    Frédérique Seyler

  12. CNRS – The French National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France

    Serge Morand

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Prost, C. (2019). Social-ecological Coviability of the Protected Marine Areas in Brazil: Contradictions in the Co-management of Protected Marine Areas of Brazil to Policies for the Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems. In: Barrière, O., et al. Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems: Reconnecting Mankind to the Biosphere in an Era of Global Change. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78497-7_14

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