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Organisms and Freedom

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The Foundations of Phenomenological Psychotherapy

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Abstract

The difference between human beings and animals is more fully explored in this chapter which elucidates the difference in question in the light of the contrasting modes of enactment of the motility of life among living beings. These phenomenological analyses ultimately trace the humanity of man—and hence the difference between human beings and animals—back to the freedom of man to understand the things that meaningfully address him. From this perspective, ipseity manifests itself as the very possibility of the experience of freedom.

The analyses conducted enable an engagement with some of the key points of extended evolutionary synthesis, and outline a range of new spheres in which psychology and the natural sciences can cooperate, according to a phenomenologically oriented methodology. In particular, the focus becomes the co-productivity of psychology and cardiology, the neurosciences, and psychiatry.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Evidently, past selection has made the networks of interactions underlying development indifferent to minor changes.

  2. 2.

    Formally indicating philosophical concepts are defined as follows: “the meaningful content of these concepts does not directly signify or express what it refers to, but only provides an indication, a reference to the fact that the conceptual connection exhorts the person who understands it to implement a transformation of himself in the direction of being-there” (p. 430 GA 56/57 1999).

  3. 3.

    Clearly, this grasping is an enactment, and hence intelligibility—understanding a thing as this or that (etwas als etwas)—constitutes an indication starting from one’s own situatedness. As “being is not a genus,” it is not accessible by generalization but only by formalization. It is necessary, then, to distinguish between a universal mathesis which always deals with an object, and phenomenological formality, which primarily deals with a relation: intentionality (p. 209 Kisiel 1996).

  4. 4.

    “From the very beginning our essence is such as to understand and form the possibility of understanding” (GA 29-30 1983 p. 307).

  5. 5.

    For an exposition of the psychology of linguistic development from this perspective, see Arciero Bondolfi 2009, Ch. 2.

  6. 6.

    In the Zollikon Seminars, Heidegger observes: “Why doesn’t an animal speak? Because it has nothing to say” (p. 87).

  7. 7.

    Dastur (1995) has clearly highlighted how Aristotelian steresis constitutes the foundation of the privative interpretation.

  8. 8.

    Marion Bernard (2011) observes: “It is not just man who has the power to bring things to manifestation: he himself is subject to the general movement of individuation which discloses things and determines them in relation to one another independently of all human bringing to manifestation” (p. 367).

  9. 9.

    Patočka thus makes it possible to conceive animality starting from the universe, according to “a sensory sympathy with the world”: a sympathetic mode of living whereby the animal is “outside the boundaries of the organism, its private being, precisely because the cosmos itself is already more than a res extensa” (Patočka 1995, p. 61).

  10. 10.

    It is perhaps by virtue of the fact that they are rooted to the soil in a different way from plants that worms—be they earthworms or sea worms—have held such great appeal for biology. We have already mentioned the importance of the Sipunculus nudus for Uexküll and Magnus. Before his death, Darwin himself published the studies on the earthworm he had been conducting for over 40 years.

  11. 11.

    As in Demeter’s cycle, the earth gives birth to all things and all things return to it.

  12. 12.

    This perspective constitutes the background to the musings on the logos and freedom we find in the 1929 seminar and which have regrettably been overshadowed by the wretched choice that Heidegger made in 1933. (For a serious analysis of this decision, which was quite foreign to the kind of media attention-grabbing and coarse showiness that marked the publication of the Black Notebooks, see Patočka (1990).)

  13. 13.

    Jonas (1967, 1997) also grasped life as an active separation from the exteriority of the world: a continuous act that each individual constantly renews (through a metabolism always giving itself some new matter). However, Jonas failed to realize that the different degrees of distance exhibited by men, animals, and plants are nothing but different ways of becoming rooted in the “exterior world,” different ways of making up for the indigence at the heart of life. Jonas does not realize that even photosynthesis coincides with the motility of life, like the earthworm’s digging of tunnels and man’s growing old; rather, he understands motility as the movement of an animal correlative to the disconnection of animal life from the world. Hence, he essentially conceives of animals by reference to plants, as Barbaras (2008) notes: “L’animal est. un vegetal qui a perdu le contact et qui doit donc trouver le moyen de s’approprier ce qui n’est. plus en continuité avec lui” (p. 219).

  14. 14.

    Turner’s conception of the extended organism implies that structures used and built by animals, and other environmental modifications made by them, are actually extensions of their internal physiology, which harness and control the flow of energy, thereby imparting an “extended physiology” to external environments.

  15. 15.

    However, niche-constructing effects are not always adaptations (Scott-Phillips et al. 2013).

  16. 16.

    “A P value of 0.05 does not mean that there is a 95% chance that a given hypothesis is correct. Instead, it signifies that if the null hypothesis is true, and all other assumptions made are valid, there is a 5% chance of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the one observed” (Baker 2016, Nuzzo 2014).

  17. 17.

    This rigor is certainly a far cry from the slapdash approach preached and practiced by many mindfulness therapists. While the further investigation of this practice is of great interest for psychology as a science, the attempt to reduce psychology and psychotherapy to it reflects a serious misunderstanding of the very foundations of psychology.

  18. 18.

    There is a consistent link between chronic emotional or psychosocial stress and coronary atherosclerosis (and atherosclerotic risk factors) (Brotman et al. 2007).

  19. 19.

    During the fMRI session, participants watched the faces of partners and strangers, in both painful and neutral situations. The results show that the highly inward prone participants had a greater activation of the left posterior insula while they processed their partners’ painful facial expressions, whereas outward participants did not show an involvement of the insula, but a significant involvement of the left precuneus and mPFC.

  20. 20.

    Clearly, the same indications can also guide psychometric research.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. IPRA, Rome, Italy

    Giampiero Arciero

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Geneva, Department of Psychiatry, Genève, Switzerland

    Giampiero Arciero & Guido Bondolfi

  3. Liaison Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Geneva, Department of Psychiatry, Genève, Switzerland

    Viridiana Mazzola

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Arciero, G., Bondolfi, G., Mazzola, V. (2018). Organisms and Freedom. In: The Foundations of Phenomenological Psychotherapy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78087-0_10

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