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Mapping Migration, Identity, and Space pp 21–53Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Walking to the Northern Mines: Mesoamerican Migration in New Spain

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Abstract

The end of the sixteenth century witnessed large movements of indigenous populations from the Mesoamerican center of New Spain to the northern imperial borderlands that were opening up to mining industries. The literature often portrays this migration as a simple phenomenon, as a movement from one point to another, and as a recreation of home communities in a foreign land in the form of ethnically segregated communities of laborers. Mapping migrations renders another view of these movements, one that is much more complex, and that illustrates multicultural spaces and reveals multiethnic communities. This chapter will explore how encounters and adaptation influenced the creation of new indigenous identities in the mining town of San Luis Potosí at the turn of the seventeenth century.

I wish to thank the Geographic Information Centre at McGill University for introducing me to GIS technology. As well, the Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture provided part of the research funds.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1594, caja 2, exp. 1.

  2. 2.

    Peter Gerhard, A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain, Rev. ed., Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.

  3. 3.

    David J. Robinson, “Introduction: Towards a Typology of Migration in Colonial Spanish America,” in Migration in Colonial Spanish America, ed. David J. Robinson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 1. In the same chapter, he also writes “[…] migration was often the rule, rather than the exception, in colonial Spanish America” (13) and “[…] migration was an essential feature of colonial Spanish America” (17). Michael Swann and Tamar Diana Wilson also summarize the complex and pervasive phenomenon of migration in New Spain. Michael M. Swann, Migrants in the Mexican North: Mobility, Economy, and Society in a Colonial World (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1989), 2–25; Tamar Diana Wilson, “The Culture of Mexican Migration,” Critique of Anthropology 30, no. 4 (2010): 399–408.

  4. 4.

    Bonfiglioli, Carlo et al., eds. Las vías del noroeste. 3 volumes. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, 2006, 2008, and 2011. The quotes, from vol. III, pp. 11–13, are personal translation of “un corridor cultural fértil” and “es un Puente entre puentes, un territorio fraccionado en una pluralidad de sistemas culturales cuyas fronteras se expanden y contraen […] un cruce de caminos que conducen a otros centros, otros cruceros.”

  5. 5.

    Guillaume Boccara, “Rethinking the Margins/Thinking from the Margins: Culture, Power, and Place on the Frontiers of the New World.” Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 10, no. 1 (2003): 72–73; Christophe Giudicelli, “Presentación,” in Fronteras movedizas. Clasificaciones coloniales y dinámicas socioculturales en las fronteras americanas, edited by Christophe Giudicelli, 11–20 (México and Zamora: Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centroamericanos and El Colegio de Michoacán, 2010); Christophe Giudicelli, “Un cierre de fronteras…taxonómico. tepehuanes y tarahumara después de la guerra de los tepehuanes (1616–1631),” Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos [Online], Library of the Authors of the Center, online since 18 March 2008, connection on 16 June 2016. URL: http://nuevomundo.revues.org/25913.

  6. 6.

    Dorothy Tanck de Estrada, Atlas ilustrado de los pueblos de indios: Nueva España, 1800, Mexico: El Colegio de México; El Colegio Méxiquense, A.C.; Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas; Fomento Cultural Banamex, 2005, 51. For confraternities, see Dana Velasco Murillo, Urban Indians in a Silver City. Zacatecas, Mexico, 1546–1810, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016, 70–85.

  7. 7.

    Suzanne Austin Alchon, A Pest in the Land. New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003, 150–172. Among the best-known examples of the use of such documents are the studies of Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, The Indian Population of Central Mexico, 1531–1610, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960; The Aboriginal Population of Central Mexico on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963; and Essays in Population History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971–1979.

  8. 8.

    Censuses were indeed ordered by the Church in 1623 and 1631, and they were supposed to be recorded by Fray Juan Larios, but they are either lost or unreliable. According to Montoya, the first count was done in 1623 and compiled by the same Franciscan Fray Juan Larios. That document, B.N.M, Fondo Franciscano, 58/1159, was apparently lost sometime between 2003 and 2009, and despite multiple searches carried out by the archivists of the National Library of Mexico, they have not been able to locate it. The data Montoya presents in his doctoral dissertation relates more to the spatial organization of the migrants in San Luis Potosí than to their ethnic origins. Alberto Carrillo Cázares also refers to a padrón (census) for 1631, but he does not have much confidence in that source because it was only a partial census of the population and contained many errors. Alberto Carrillo Cázares, Michoacán en el otoño del siglo XVII, Zamora: El Colegio de Michoacán; Govierno del Estado de Michoacán, 1993, 18–26; Peter Gerhard, A Guide, 236; Alejandro Montoya, Población y sociedad en un real de minas de la frontera norte Novohispana: San Luis Potosí, de finales del siglo XVI a 1810, Ph.D. dissertation, Montréal: Université de Montréal, 2004, 126–129.

  9. 9.

    For greater details on the method to get to these estimates, see Laurent Corbeil, Identities in Motion: The Formation of a Plural Indio Society in Early San Luis Potosi, New Spain, Ph.D. dissertation, Montréal: McGill University, 2014, 42–3. See also Alejandro Montoya, Poblacion y sociedad, 101–107. The documentation used is Archivo Parroquial de Tlaxcalilla, Libro de bautizos y matrimonios, 1594–1654; “Informaciones de oficio y parte Cristóbal Gómez de Rojas, 1600,” Archivo General de Indias, Audiencia de México, leg. 223, n. 13, f. 3r.; “Memorial de Lucas Fernández Manjón, vezino del pueblo de San Luis Potosí (Madrid, 1627),” 1v. British Library 725.k.18 (7).

  10. 10.

    Dorothy Tanck de Estrada, Atlas ilustrado, 51–59.

  11. 11.

    Carlos Paredes Martínez, “Grupos étnicos y conflictividad social en Guayangareo-Valladolid, al inicio de la época colonial,” in Lengua y etnohistoria purépecha; Homenaje a Benedict Warren, edited by Carlos Paredes Martínez. Morelia: Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo; Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, 1997, 315–318; and “Los barrios indígenas de la ciudad de Valladolid de Michoacán en la época colonial,” in Urbi indiano. La larga marcha a la ciudad diversa, edited by Virginia Molina and Oscar González. Mexico: Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México, 2005, 103–127. See also Herrejón Paredo, who reports that archeological studies of the site have uncovered a highly active commercial and cultural center that had contact far away into the north, the west, and to Teotihuacán. He also confirms the cultural complexity of the population. Carlos Herrejón Peredo, Los orígenes de Morelia: Guayangareo-Valladolid, 2nd ed., Mexico and Zamora: Frente de Afirmación Hispanista and El Colegio de Michoacán, 2000, 15–33.

  12. 12.

    Peter Gerhard, A Guide, 343–354. I identified the principal language of each community on the map following Peter Gerhard, A Guide, and The North Frontier of New Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).

  13. 13.

    Alfredo López Austin and Leonardo López Luján, El pasado indígena, 2nd ed., México: El Colegio de México, Fideicomiso Historia de las Américas, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2001, 55–75.

  14. 14.

    See, for some examples, Matthew Restall, Maya Conquistador, Boston: Beacon Press, 1998; Laura E. Matthew and Michel R. Oudijk, eds., Indian Conquistadors; Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007; Ida Altman, The War for Mexico’s West: Indians and Spaniards in New Galicia, 1524–1550, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010; and Laura E. Matthew, Memories of Conquest.

  15. 15.

    These privileges were written down in the document entitled “Capitulaciones del virrey Velasco con la ciudad de Tlaxcala para el envío de cuatrocientas familias a poblar en tierra de chichimecas – 1591”. The document was copied in Primo Feliciano Velázquez, Colección de documentos para la historia de San Luis Potosí, vol. I, San Luis Potosí: Imprenta del Editor, 1897, 177–183. See also Tomás Martínez Saldaña, La diáspora tlaxcalteca. Colonización agrícola del norte mexicano, Tlaxcala: Tlaxcallan, Ediciones del Gobierno del Estado de Tlaxcala, 1998, 159–165. English translations can be found in Philip Wayne Powell, Mexico’s Miguel Caldera; The Taming of America’s First Frontier, 1548–1597, Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1977; Eugene Sego, Six Tlaxcalan Colonies on New Spain’s Northern Frontier: A Comparison of Success and Failure, Ph.D. dissertation, Bloomington: Indiana University, 1990, 273–4. The Capitulaciones are also explained in Andrea Martínez Baracs, “Colonizaciones tlaxcaltecas,” Historia Mexicana 43, no. 2 (1993), 195–250; José Antonio Rivera Villanueva, Los Tlaxcaltecas: pobladores de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí: El Colegio de San Luis, 1999, 7–8.

  16. 16.

    Sego, Six Tlaxcalan Colonies, 50; Martínez Saldaña, La diáspora tlaxcalteca: 59–74.

  17. 17.

    Marínez Saldaña places Cuicillo near León, but this is most improbable as this latter town was on a secondary road off the camino real and actually quiet far from Zacatecas. All other descriptions of that voyage place Cuicillo southeast of Zacatecas. The town today is called Coecillo.

  18. 18.

    The organization and migration of the Tlaxcalans as well as the encounter between the Guachichils and the Tlaxcalans are described by many authors: Velázquez, Historia deSan Luis Potosí, Vol. 1: De los tiempos nebulosos a la fundación del pueblo de San Luis Potosí, México: Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, 1946, 416–18; Martínez Baracs, “Colonizaciones tlaxcaltecas,” 229–243; David Frye, Indians into Mexicans; History and Identity in a Mexican Town, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996, 43–70; María Isabel Monroy and Tomás Calvillo Unna, Breve historia de San Luis Potosí. México: El Colegio de México, Fideicomiso Historia de la Américas, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1997, 70–77; Martínez Saldaña, La diáspora tlaxcalteca: 59–74; Eugene Sego, Aliados y adversarios: Los colonos tlaxcaltecas en la frontera septentrional de Nueva España, México: El Colegio de San Luis, Gobierno del estado de Tlaxcala, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas de San Luis Potosí, 1998, 42–66; Rafael Montejano y Aguiñaga, “La evolución de los Tlaxcaltecas en San Luis Potosí,” in Constructores de la nación. La migración tlaxcalteca en el norte de la Nueva España, edited by María Isabel Monroy Castillo, 79–83 (San Luis Potosí: El Colegio de San Luis y Gobierno del Estado de Tlaxcala, 1999); Rivera Villanueva, José Antonio, “La influencia tlaxcalteca en la vida política de los pueblos indios de San Luis Potosí (1590–1620),” in Constructores de la nación. La migración tlaxcalteca en el norte de la Nueva España, edited by María Isabel Monroy Castillo, 89–102 (San Luis Potosí: El Colegio de San Luis y Gobierno del Estado de Tlaxcala, 1999); Guadalupe Salazar González, Las haciendas en el siglo XVII en la región minera de San Luis Potosí; Su espacio, forma, función, material, significado y estructuración regional, San Luis Potosí: Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, 2000, 39–44; Montoya, “Población y sociedad,” 65–68; and Alejandro Galván Arellano, Arquitectura y urbanismo de la ciudad de San Luis Potosí en el siglo XVII, San Luis Potosí: Facultad del Hábitat, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, 2006, 31–39.

  19. 19.

    There were notable exceptions to this legal power of the Tlaxcalans, but they always succeeded in the long run. Some of their temporary failures are the subject of another unpublished research by the author.

  20. 20.

    William B. Taylor writes that migration “reached new dimensions in the sixteenth century.” Felipe Castro Gutiérrez shows this change for Tarascan migrations. It is also possible to observe this phenomenon for all migrants to San Luis Potosí. Felipe Castro Gutiérrez, Los Tarascos y el imperio español, 1600–1740, México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, 2004, 45; William B. Taylor, Drinking, Homicide & Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979, 16; Peter Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico, Zacatecas, 1546–1700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, 15 and 115–28; Dana Velasco Murillo, Urban Indians in a Silver City, Zacatecas, Mexico, 1546–1806, Ph.D. Dissertation, Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 2009, 53–59.

  21. 21.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1592, caja 1, exp. 2 and 4.

  22. 22.

    David Charles Wright Carr, Querétaro en el siglo XVI: Fuentes documentales primarias, Querétaro: Dirección de Patrimonio Cultural, Secretaría de Cultura y Bienestar Social, Gobierno del Estado de Querétaro, 1993; and Yolanda Lastra, Los Otomíes: su lengua y su historia, México: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2006, 131–41.

  23. 23.

    Jacques Soustelle, La famille Otomi-Pame du Mexique central, Paris: Institut d’ethnologie, 1937, 491–509; Wright Carr, Querétaro en el siglo; Lastra, Los Otomíes: 131–141.

  24. 24.

    Douglas Butterworth and John K. Chance, Latin American Urbanization, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981: 39–50.

  25. 25.

    Bakewell, Silver Mining: 125–126; David A. Brading, Miners & Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971: 146; Isabel Monroy Castillo and Tomás Calvillo Unna, Historia regional de San Luis Potosí, México: SEP, CONALEP, Limusa, 2000: 96–100; Salazar González, Las haciendas: 301–306; Ignacio del Río, “Sobre la aparición y desarrollo del trabajo libre asalariado en el Norte de Nueva España, siglos XVI y XVII,” in Estudios históricos sobre la formación del Norte de México, edited by Ignacio del Río, 27–46 (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2009); Velasco Murillo, Urban Indians: 56–57.

    Conditions found in the mines of northern New Spain contrasted sharply with those in the mines of the Andes, such as the famous Potosí, where the majority of indigenous labor came from coerced labor institutions and where indigenous peoples had to pay taxes.

  26. 26.

    Robinson, “Introduction,” 3–10.

  27. 27.

    David Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 4 (2003): 703–742; and Austin Alchon, A Pest in the Land.

  28. 28.

    For a lengthier discussion of these factors, see Laurent Corbeil, Identities in Motion. The Formation of a Plural Indio Society in Early San Luis Potosí, New Spain, 1591–1630, Ph.D. Dissertation, Montréal: McGill University, 2014, 72–94. See also John K. Chance, Tomás Jalpa Flores, and William B. Taylor mentioning the epidemics, the land dispossession, and the labor exploitation as destructive elements for the indigenous population of New Spain. Chance, John K. “The Urban Indian in Colonial Oaxaca.” American Ethnologist 3, no. 4 (1976): 603–632; Taylor, Drinking, Homicide & Rebellion: 1; Ann M. Wightman, Indigenous Migration and Social Change; The Forasteros of Cuzco, 1570–1720, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1990: 6; Castro Gutiérrez, Los Tarascos: 51; and Tomás Jalpa Flores, “Migrantes y extravagantes. Indios de la periferia en la ciudad de México durante los siglos XVI-XVII,” in Los Indios y las ciudades de Nueva España, edited by Felipe Castro Gutiérrez, 80 (México: Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2010).

  29. 29.

    Salazar González, Las haciendas: 151–167.

  30. 30.

    The Mixtón War was the last large movement of Cazcan—and probably Tecuexe—resistance against the Spanish invasion. It took place from 1540 to 1542 between Nueva Galicia and Zacatecas. Bakewell, Silver Mining: 4–5 and 36; Altman, The War for Mexico’s: 121–151.

  31. 31.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1594, caja 2, exp. 1.

  32. 32.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1603, caja 1, exp. 18.

  33. 33.

    AHESLP, AM, 1627, caja 4, exp. 3.

  34. 34.

    Castro Gutiérrez, Los Tarascos: 46–49. For Spanish appreciations of high-skilled Tarascan labor in San Luis Potosí, see Salazar González, Las haciendas: 299–300.

  35. 35.

    Jalpa Flores, “Migrantes y extravagantes,” 83–4.

  36. 36.

    APT, Libro de Bautizos y Matrimonios 1594–1654, f. 326v, 09/04/1624.

  37. 37.

    AHESLP, AM, A-43, 1603, caja 2, exp. 13. The exact numbers are 240 indigenous women out of 806 indigenous men.

  38. 38.

    AHESLP, AM, 1624, caja 4, exp. 2.

  39. 39.

    Dana Velasco Murillo “Laboring above Ground: Indigenous Women in New Spain’s Silver Mining District, Zacatecas, Mexico, 1620–1770,” The Hispanic American Historical Review 93, no. 1 (2013): 3–32; Jane E. Mangan, Trading Roles: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Urban Economy in Colonial Potosí, Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.

  40. 40.

    AHESLP, AM, 1612, caja 3, exp. 4. The numbers for San Miguel are twenty-seven, five, and one; for San Sebastián they are twenty, two, and zero.

  41. 41.

    Salazar González, Las haciendas: 300; Montoya, Población y sociedad: 109.

  42. 42.

    Castro Gutiérrez, Los Tarascos: 49–50.

  43. 43.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1594, caja 2, exp. 1.

  44. 44.

    For more extensive details about indigenous craftsmen, see Jacques Poloni-Simard, La mosaïque indienne; Mobilité, stratification sociale et métissage dans le corregimiento de Cuenca (Équateur) du XVIeau XVIIesiècle, Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2000: 95–102; and Corbeil, Identities in Motion: 118–120 and 149–156.

  45. 45.

    The three writings of apprenticeship are in AHESLP, AM, 1626, caja 1, exp. 21, f. 5, 7, and 13.

  46. 46.

    To know more about Juan de Oliva, see AHESLP, AM, A-43, 1603, caja 2, exp. 15 and Salazar González, Las haciendas: 270.

  47. 47.

    AHESLP, AM, A-44, 1594, caja 1, exp. 18–20; 1595, caja 1, exp. 6a; 1595, caja 1, exp. 7; 1595, caja 2, exp. 19; 1597, caja 1, exp. 21.

  48. 48.

    René Acuña, Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI: Nueva Galicia, Vol. 10, Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1988: 302.

  49. 49.

    Yanna Yannakakis, “Introduction: How Did They Talk to One Another? Language Use and Communication in Multilingual New Spain.” Ethnohistory 59, no. 4 (2012): 672.

  50. 50.

    See Corbeil, Identities in Motion: 195–225, for more details.

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  1. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Laurent Corbeil

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  1. Laurent Corbeil
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Correspondence to Laurent Corbeil .

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  1. Department of Romance Languages and Literatures, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Tabea Linhard

  2. Department of History, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Timothy H. Parsons

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Corbeil, L. (2019). Walking to the Northern Mines: Mesoamerican Migration in New Spain. In: Linhard, T., Parsons, T.H. (eds) Mapping Migration, Identity, and Space. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77956-0_2

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