Abstract
While contained urban space, as reviewed in the first section of the book, suggests series of binaries deriving from the original dichotomy city/nature, a geographic expansion favors the commingling of composite or opposite principles. The second section of the book analyzes ways in which elective or imposed coexistence of diverse agents on a geographic field kindle a process that evolves from juxtaposition to reciprocal permeation and eventually miscegenation, both in culture- and region-forming. This chapter describes apparently unrelated phenomena as concurrent manifestations of miscegenation: (1) the auto-reformulation of Josephine Baker’s self-agency, unfolding in the sequential transformations of her celebrated banana skirt resonating in artistic expressions of the early-twentieth-century primitivist modernism; (2) the formation of open space ensembles in the colonial cities of Nueva España from the fusion of the Mesoamerican and Mediterranean ideas of place-making; (3) the implementation of the monumental metropolitan boulevard of Reforma in Mexico City, linking the colonial historical center to the pre-Hispanic hill of Chapultepec and its venerated forest. These productions of urban and metropolitan beauty stand in sheer contrast with the violent transformations of the territorial land patterns of the hinterlands of Mexico, displaced derivatives of the land expropriations of the French revolutionary period that shape the dreary face of the new nation through the transition from colonia to estado nacional. The text draws parallels between the cultural and spatial implications of the colonizing action brought forth by conquering over conquered groups in a territory.
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Notes
- 1.
In English: ‘the presence of America’. For the Spaniards, it was still the ‘Indias’, but Bernal refers to the sparked trajectory that will turn the continent into the New World.
- 2.
See entire sub-chapter ‘Las cartas de Colón y el asombro de las Indias’.
- 3.
See entire chapter ‘Las voces caribes de los Españoles’.
- 4.
In English: ‘preservation of the natives’.
- 5.
Bernal’s political activism in the filo-fascist, nationalist, and rhetorical movimiento sinarquista had lead him to sojourns in the Mexican prisons around 1948. His monumental work El Gran Océano was mainly elaborated in the years 1960–65, when deployed to the diplomatic missions in Honduras, the Philippines, and Peru. Through his missions, he had the opportunity to explore firsthand ‘el campo histórico inteligible’ of the transculturation processes, between the opposite shores of the Pacific rather than across their aquatic medium. His cultural action in the diplomatic service focused on the promotion of international collaborative studies, resulting in a considerable ‘transpacific intellectual flow’ between Mexico, Peru, the Philippines, China and Japan. (De Maria and Campos Castelló 2015) As a counterpoint to his diplomatic and political stances, in his contemporary fictional production, Bernal is otherwise a sharp castigator of his homeland’s hypocritical rhetoric (Bernal 1969, 2015b).
- 6.
See Chap. 3 of this book.
- 7.
The comedy chorus girl at the end of the line is a traditional persona of black vaudeville. She cannot get the step upon entering the stage, but gets it better than anyone else ‘breaking the place out’ in the encore, as narrated by Patrick O’Connor in the BBC documental Josephine Baker (Broughton and Phillips 2006, frame 5′40″).
- 8.
Interviewed in the same documental, Brenda Dixon Gottschild enumerates the ‘shimmy’, ‘mooch’, ‘mess-around’, and ‘Charleston’.
- 9.
Sweeney mentions Man Ray, who took photographs of the cast, Jean Cocteau, Robert Desnos, Blaise Cendrars, Francis Picabia, Paul Guillaume, Fernand Léger, Kees Van Dongen (Sweeney 2004, p. 45).
- 10.
“She made her entry entirely nude except for a pink flamingo feather between her limbs; she was being carried upside down and doing the splits on the shoulder of a black giant. Mid stage he paused, and with his long fingers holding her basket-wise around the waist, swung her in a slow cartwheel to the stage floor, where she stood… She was an unforgettable female ebony statue.” (Flanner 1925)
- 11.
On Paul Colin’s Tumulte Noir album of 1927, see (Dalton and Gates 1998).
- 12.
Sowinska describes Baker’s banana skirt as a collective creation to which one of Paul Colin’s posters for the Revue Nègre must have contributed with a fundamental intuition. There first appears a transfiguration of Backer’s body in animalistic countenance, veiled by a tuft of bananas. Jean Cocteau’s artistic direction and many other characters peopling the music hall scene of the ‘20s, confusedly mentioned in Baker’s autobiographies including herself, must have variously contributed to the gradual evolution of the costume from the jingling rubber tuft to the glittering bananas string.
- 13.
A popular quote from British singer Shirley Bassey.
- 14.
See: sub-chapter ‘6.1 Geography, discovery, colonization, and miscegenation’ in this book.
- 15.
Along with El-Khoury, Claudia Conforti also notes that Bastide’s account, initially published on a newspaper in 1760, might have a physical model in the Pavillion de Laboissière, or Hôtel de La Bouëxière, (Conforti 2017, p. 19) built for the tax collector Charles-François Gaillard de La Bouëxière, son of Jean, by Antoine Matthieu Le Carpentier in the mid-eighteenth century as a folie in the gardens designed by Jean-Michel Chevotet (Wikipédia 2018). Freely inspired by Bastide’s original, Vittorio De Feo, the subject of Conforti’s essay, had written a literary ecphrasis elaborated upon his own project for a little house, incarnating his lofty interpretation of architecture as a playful pleasure. See Tre racconti di architettura (De Feo 2010).
- 16.
In English: Porporino or the Mysteries of Naples.
- 17.
In English: God Mozart and the World of Birds.
- 18.
An accento is an emphasis placed on individual notes.
- 19.
A gruppetti, appoggiature, staccati, spiccati are musical ‘ornaments’ not strictly necessary to carry the line of a melody. Subtracting from a principal note’s time-value, an appoggiatura is an added higher or lower note. A gruppetto, or ‘turn’, is a figure composed about a principal note, assembling a higher note, the note itself, a lower note, and the note itself again. The staccato, is a sequence of notes of shortened time-value for each to be detached from the next, applying chiefly to wind instruments, while the spiccato is the technique of bouncing the bow on the strings to detach one note from the other.
- 20.
In fact, Rossini (1793–1868; Il barbiere di Siviglia, 1816, prequel of Mozart’s Le nozze di Figaro, from the homonymous dramas of 1775 and 1784 by Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais) was active until the fourth decade of the 1800s, while Bellini (1801–1835; Norma, 1831) did not survive the early triumphs of Verdi (1813–1901; active 1839–1893; Nabucco, 1842) and Wagner (1813–1883; active 1832–1882; Der Ring des Nibelungen tetralogy, 1869–83).
- 21.
Still in 1936, Baker had been called ‘negro wench’ by the New York Times upon her unacclaimed return to America, with the intention of relegating her to the censured space of segregation. Several black activists would in turn regard her artistic roles as degrading for the Afro-American community.
- 22.
We can identify a complete historical sequence by lining up: ancien régime; 1789 revolution; 1792 terror; 1794 white terror; 1801 First Empire; 1815 Restauration; 1830 July Monarchy; 1848s Republic; 1851s Empire; 1870 Third Republic with the 1871 parenthesis of the Communes.
- 23.
A complete historical sequence, in this case, lines up: Mesoamerican civilizations; 1325 foundation Tenochtitlán future capital of the Aztec Empire; 1519 Conquista; 1521 colonial Virreinato de Nueva España; 1810 war of Independence; 1821 Independencia; 1822 Imperio de Iturbide; 1823 United Mexican States; 1824 Republican Constitution and Primera República Federal Mexicana; 1836 centralized reform of Santa Anna and dictatorship; 1846 US Mexico war; 1846 Segunda República Federal Mexicana; 1847 Yucatan’s guerra de castas start; 1848 loss of a half of the territory to the USA; 1854 Plan of Ayutla; 1855 liberal government; 1857 liberal constitution; 1858s dictatorship of Santa Anna; 1859 Leyes de Reforma; 1861 liberal government of Juarez; 1864 French intervention and Second Empire; 1867 Liberal Government of Juárez; 1872 Liberal Governemt; 1876 Porfiriato; 1810 Mexican Revolution; 1917 Constitution and civil war; 1929 Maximato; 1934 PRI one-party rule.
- 24.
In English: Ethnicity, State, and Nation.
- 25.
Florescano intends to override the politically interested reconstructions of the 1994 events and their motives: on one hand, the perpetuations of the positivist nationalism that has kept the country under authoritarian rule, excluding the authentic participation of native groups; on the other hand, the celebrative salutations from the neo-Marxist intellighencija, which subject the interpretation of the historical dynamics to alien ideological superstructures.
- 26.
Ethnicity is defined as a group of individuals historically settled in a territory, with a common language and culture, who recognize their own peculiarities before other groups and identify themselves by an own name. The state appears with the legal system intended to exert sovereign power over a territory and the individuals in its jurisdiction. The nation, which anciently coincided with the ethnic group, is reformulated into the new idea of citizenship by the overturns of the French Revolution. Since then, the members of a nation reciprocally recognize themselves mutual obligations and rights by virtue of their common belonging to a community of peers, that is not by virtue of birth, but social edification of the citizen. To formulate the notions of ethnicity, state, and nation, Florescano relies respectively on Tamara Dragadze, Colin Renfrew, Anthony Smith; Norberto Bobbio; Eric Hobsbawm. This ideal of a modern nation of citizens, governed by equal laws, corresponds to an “imagined community” (after Benedict Anderson), in which the inhabitants of the country, with all their disparities, are unified by similar ideals, share a territory, have a common past, and venerate symbols of identity (Florescano 2001, pp. 14–16).
- 27.
In English: “by sowing crops in the land and filling it up with monuments, the dwellers acquired a property right on it; the land became territory of the community and was bound to the ancestors and patron gods” [translated by the author].
- 28.
See the San Lorenzo basalt throne, the toponymical glyph of Mount Tláloc in the Códice Borbónico, and Olmec steles, murals of Teotihuacán, Oaxacan bas-reliefs, Cholulan drawings (Florescano 2001, pp. 36, 268, 270).
- 29.
Cultures based on the cacicazgo regime settles between the sixteenth- and the thirteenth-century BC in the area of Soconusco, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
- 30.
Danibaam will decay by the eighth century.
- 31.
See the famous bas-reliefs from Palenque representing Kan Balam’s ascension and the transfer of power and ritual tools from his father Pakal in the seventh century.
- 32.
The state of B’aakam, along with the Maya cultures, decays in the 9th century.
- 33.
The city trace included even a district exclusively inhabited by Maya communities, which has led to consider Teotihuacán the first multiethnic state of Mesoamerica.
- 34.
Ah Puh in Maya.
- 35.
See the Códice Boturini or Tira de la Peregrinación, Biblioteca Nacional de Antropología e Historia de México, amatl paper (ficus bark) with Mexica writing, 21-folds 20 × 542 cm, conventionally dated 1530/41.
- 36.
Codex Xólotl, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Mexicain, amatl paper (ficus bark), 10 folios 40 × 50 cm, conventionally dated 16th century. The document accounts the history of the Acolhuas, from the arrival of the Chichimec tribes into the area of the Texcoco lake (first folio) until the conquest of Azcapotzalco, on the west shore of the lake, at the hand of Netzahualcóyotl of 1428 (tenth folio).
- 37.
The lake is named by the capital of the Acolhuacán state, Texcoco.
- 38.
Mapa Quinatzin, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Mexicain, amatl paper (ficus bark), 3 folios 34.5 × 43.5 cm, conventionally dated 1543/48. About this document see the detailed and valuable analysis by María Mohar (Mohar 1999). We refer in particular to the first folio illustrating the encounter between the new Chichimec peoples and the native dwellers of Acolhuacán and aspects of their life. The second folio describes the palace of Netzahualcoyótl, emperor of Texcoco, and the third crimes and relative punishments of Acolhua legal system. Both the Codex Xólotl and the Mapa Quinatzin were part of the collection of the ‘erudite chronicler of the Acolhuas’, Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl (1568/80–1648).
- 39.
See also Códice Mendoza, Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, 71 folios with later explication notes in Spanish, dating back to the 1540s, three sections: listing the Mexica governors and their conquests from 1325 to 1521; showing the altepemeh under Mexica rule and their tributes; daily aspects of the life of the Mexicas. See folio 2 illustrating the foundation of Tenochtitlán.
- 40.
First, they manage to re-establish their ally Nezahualcóyotl on the throne of Texcoco and then attack Azcapotzalco with the alliance of the atépemeh of Texcoco and Tlacopam, then known as Triple Alliance, base of their future empire.
- 41.
While Zapotecs and Mayas prefer to represent their states by the toponymical glyph of the capital, the Toltecs and Mexicas represent their territory by identifying its boundaries. The emblems of the surrounding states are aligned all along the territorial limits in a diagrammatic mapping that also traces the center of the state and the principal paths, places, and rivers.
- 42.
Florescano bases his description of the altépetl on James Lockhart’s sociopolitical studies on the Nauha communities in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
- 43.
Plural of altépetl.
- 44.
In English: “these and others are the men who conquered a continent […]. They had many vices. They massacred the natives, betrayed their chieftains, enriched themselves shamelessly […]. But they also had extraordinary virtues. They were soldiers, explorers, administrators, founders of cities, and organizers of provinces. Despite certain bigot and politically correct versions of the third-worldist culture of recent years, the Spanish conquest of the New World was one of the most extraordinary pages of Europe’s history.” [translation by the author]
- 45.
Following the Cholultec account presented here, León-Portilla also reports the excusatory Tlaxcaltec version accusing the Cholulas of being the cause of the massacre for refusing to submit to the Spaniards and killing a Tlaxcaltec emissary. According to the Spanish accounts of the events, instead, the Spaniards act to foil a lethal complot being prepared by the Cholulas.
- 46.
From Garibay’s Spanish version presented in León-Portilla’s Visión de los vencidos: Relaciones indígenas de la conquista of 1959. In English: “Assembly had been called in the temple of Quetzalcoatl. As soon as all had gathered, the entrances were taken and death was given by sudden stabbings and hits. Nothing the Cholultecs had feared in their hearts, no swords, no shields had they carried. […] All the turmoil was reported to Motecuhzoma at once, by messengers running back and forth on the routes. […] It was as though the earth trembled and swirled before one’s eyes.” [translation by the author]
- 47.
From Lysander Kemp’s English translation of 1962. See The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico, Boston: Beacon Press.
- 48.
Translation by the author.
- 49.
The native population of Nueva España would suddenly drop down to 1 million, due to well-known epidemics by the end of the sixteenth century to then rise to 2.5 million at the end of the colonial era.
- 50.
By the name of criollos went the ones born in the colonies of pure European descent, while the mestizos are the ones born to mixed couples, generally European and Mesoamerican native.
- 51.
The Galería de Castas Mexicanas of the Lydia Sada de González collection at the Museo de Historia Mexicana of Monterrey, among other pinturas de castas, includes a typical 16-canvas series by the Pueblan painter José Joaquín Magón where the racial mixes of the three major groups, Spanish, black, and indigenous, are associated to standardized physical traits and psychological and personal characteristics: Español + India = Mestizo (humble, quiet, simple); Mestizo + Española = Castizo (attachment to horse); Español + Castiza = Fructo bello (alike his father); Blanco + Negra = Mulato (pride, disdain); Español + Mulata = Morisco (to be and doctrine); Español + Morisca = Albino (short-sighted, weak, soft, benign); Albino + Española = Torna atrás (figure, genius, customs); Mulato + India = Calpa Mulato (indocile, strong, stocky body); India + Calpamulato = Gibaro (restless, arrogant); Negro + India = Lobo, mala ralea (squanderer, hustler); Lobo + India = Cambujo (heavy, indolent, dull); Indio + Cambuja = Sambayga (the one for whom there is no guile he doesn’t understand); Mestizo + Mulata = Cuarteron (capcious); Cuarteron + Mestiza (always quarreling) = Collote (strong, daring); Collote + Morisca = Albarazado (inclined to jokes and letdowns); Torna atrás (adult female) + Albarazado = Tente en el aire (ungrateful, evil).
- 52.
Translation by the author.
- 53.
Humboldt’s work on Nueva España, published in Paris in 1811 is composed of three parts: a series of tables of data, titled Tablas geográficas políticas del Reino de Nueva España que manifiestan su superficie, población, agricultura, fábricas, comercio, minas, rentas y fuerzas militares; a series of twenty geographic maps and various diagrams, profiles and vistas, titled Atlas géographique et physique du royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne; and a critical essay synthesizing information from multiple fields, titled Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne.
- 54.
De Caldas was the first director of Bogotá’s astronomical observer built in 1803 in the precincts of the botanical garden constituted by Mutis following the multiple botanical expeditions in the Nuevo Reino de Granada started in 1873.
- 55.
Translation by the author.
- 56.
Translation by the author.
- 57.
Rosa María Martínez writes that when the cycle of the Leyes de Reforma are completed in 1873 with the annexation into the Constitution, five short articles sanctioned: independence of the State from the Church; secularization of marriage and civil state; prohibition for religious institutions to possess estates other than churches and residences for priests and bishops; replacement of the civil for the religious oaths (Martínez 2008, p. 142). To this, we can add the secularization of cemeteries, suppression of monasteries, exclaustration of nuns and institution of the calendar of laic public holidays.
- 58.
Martínez asserts that the Ley de Nacionalización de Bienes del Clero y su Reglamento deliberated by the Juárez government in 1859 happened to be much more effective than any previous laws, almost resulting in a general confiscation. The law’s preamble states how the practical purpose is to pass all the possessions of the Church into private ownership through immediate auctions and destine the profits to cover civil war expenditures. This leads to the consideration that the spirit of the Ley de Nacionalización is not that of increasing the federal patrimony, but rather to render the properties available to entrepreneurial initiative, while rapidly cashing to cover a substantial national debt (Martínez 2008, pp. 140–1).
- 59.
According to Martínez, the Second Empire (April 1846 to July 1867) does nothing but consolidating Juárez’ nationalization model, which will then be confirmed once again with the restauration of the Republic. Therefore, the State had been confiscating and selling religious properties without interruption. (Martínez 2008, pp. 141–142).
- 60.
Translated by the author.
- 61.
At odds with the case of the Yaqui lands, in The Reform in Oaxaca 1856–76, Charles Berry concludes that the liberal revolution in Oaxaca is, by and large, a movement of the middle-class, urban and elitist, which did not show any interest in the effects on the life of the peasants and natives. Its effect on the social and territorial structure is only noticeable in the areas closest to the capital of Oaxaca and its institutions (Berry 1981).
- 62.
About the introduction of public parks (Volsksgarten) as supplies of natural services for the metropolitanites of modernizing cities since the beginning of the eighteenth century, see Chap. 7 of this book.
- 63.
Quoting Miguel Ángel Berumen, curator of the photographic traveling exhibition La Revolución Mexicana: Un Valse Triste, 2015 [in English: The Mexican Revolution: a Sad Waltz].
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Pasini, R. (2019). Miscegenation: Culture- and Region-Forming Processes. In: Landscape Paradigms and Post-urban Spaces. The Urban Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77887-7_5
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