Iraq: Iraqi Kurdistan, Unresolved Issues, and Changing International Priorities

Walsh, Dawn

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77234-9_6

Dawn Walsh⁴

Part of the book series: Federalism and Internal Conflicts ((FEINCO))

331 Accesses

Abstract

Chapter six examines how federacy has been used in post-2003 Iraq to convince the Kurds to remain part of Iraq. It highlights that after over a decade of de facto independence from the rest of Iraq the Kurds were wary post-Saddam recentralisation. It shows that constitutional ambiguity around hydrocarbon management and the disputed territories weakened the ability of the domestic infrastructure to stabilise the TSG institutions. It argues that international actors, notably the US and Turkey, attempted to discourage Kurdish secession. However it also finds that economic self-interest and the grave security threat posed by ISIS led to policies which did not always prioritise this aim strongly underlining how wider determinants of policy can encourage secessionist momentum.

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Notes

1.
Though there was the potential for the creation of new regions through the amalgamation of governorates these regions would enjoy less autonomy than Kurdistan which was afforded particular protections.
2.
Wilgenburg, W. (2012). Breaking from Baghdad: Kurdish Autonomy vs. Maliki’s Manipulation. World Affairs, Vol. 175, No. 4, 47–53.
3.
Wimmer, A. (2003). Democracy and Ethno-religious Conflict in Iraq. Survival, Vol. 45, No. 4, 111–134.
4.
Hilternmann, J. (2008). To Protect or to Project? Iraqi Kurds and Their Future. Middle East Report, No. 247, 6–17.
5.
Romano, D. (2010). Iraqi Kurdistan: Challenges of Autonomy in the Wake of US Withdrawal. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1345–1359.
6.
Wimmer, A. (2003). Democracy and Ethno-religious Conflict in Iraq. Survival, Vol. 45, No. 4, 111–134.
7.
Hilternmann, J. (2008). To Protect or to Project? Iraqi Kurds and Their Future. Middle East Report, No. 247, 6–17.
8.
Wimmer, A. (2003). Democracy and Ethno-religious Conflict in Iraq. Survival, Vol. 45, No. 4, 111–134.
9.
Brancati, D. (2004). Can Federalism Stabilise Iraq?’ The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 2, 5–21.
10.
United Nations (1991). Resolution 688 of 5 April 1991. New York: United Nations.
11.
Hilternmann, J. (2008). To Protect or to Project? Iraqi Kurds and Their Future. Middle East Report, No. 247, 6–17.
12.
Stansfield, G. (2003). Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Developments and Emergent Democracy. London: Routledge.
13.
Romano, D. (2010). Iraqi Kurdistan: Challenges of Autonomy in the Wake of US Withdrawal. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1345–1359.
14.
Ibid.
15.
Hilternmann, J. (2008). To Protect or to Project? Iraqi Kurds and their Future. Middle East Report, No. 247, 6–17.
16.
Stansfield, G. (2003). Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Developments and Emergent Democracy. London: Routledge.
17.
BBC Worldwide Monitoring (2002). Kurdish Leader Barzani Believes Federalism Is the Answer, December 1.
18.
Conference of the Iraqi Opposition, Final Report on the Transition to Democracy in Iraq, November 2002, www.wadinet.de/news/dokus/transition_to_democracy.pdf, amended by the members of the Democratic Principles Workshop, quoted in Brancati, D. (2004). Can Federalism Stabilise Iraq? The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 2, 5–21.
19.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 53. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html.
20.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 117. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
21.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 9. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html. Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 4. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
22.
Ibid.
23.
See for example, Visser, R. (2006). Iraq’s Partition Fantasy. Open Democracy, May 19.
24.
McGarry, J., & O’Leary, B. (2007). Iraq’s Constitution of 2005: Liberal Consociation as Political Prescription. i.Con, Vol. 5, No. 4, 670–698.
25.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 119. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pd.
26.
McGarry, J., & O’Leary, B. (2007). Iraq’s Constitution of 2005: Liberal Consociation as Political Prescription. i.Con, Vol. 5, No. 4, 670–698.
27.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 53 and 54. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html. Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 141. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
28.
Ibid.
29.
Danilovich, A. (2014). Iraqi Federalism and the Kurds: Learning to Live Together. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 67–68.
30.
International Crisis Group (2009). Iraq and the Kurds: Trouble Along the Trigger Line, Middle East Report, No. 88–8, July. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/iraq-and-kurds-trouble-along-trigger-line.
31.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 112. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
32.
McGarry, J., & O’Leary, B. (2007). Iraq’s Constitution of 2005: Liberal Consociation as Political Prescription. i.Con, Vol. 5, No. 4, 670–698.
33.
International Crisis Group (2006). The Next Iraqi War? Sectarianism and Civil Conflict. Middle East Report, No. 52. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/next-iraqi-war-sectarianism-and-civil-conflict.
34.
McGarry, J., & O’Leary, B. (2007). Iraq’s Constitution of 2005: Liberal Consociation as Political Prescription. i.Con, Vol. 5, No. 4, 670–698.
35.
International Crisis Group (2012). Iraq and the Kurds: The High-Stakes Hydrocarbons Gambit. Middle East Report, No. 120. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/iraq-and-kurds-high-stakes-hydrocarbons-gambit.
36.
Williams, T. (2009). Kurdistan Halts Oil Flow and Angers Baghdad. International Herald Tribune, October 14.
37.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (2015). UK Government Policy on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq Eighth Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited.
38.
Alaaldin, R. (2014). Backing the Kurds will Stabilise Iraq. Al Jazeera, August 27.
39.
BBC Monitoring Europe (2014). Turkey Said Urging USA to Lift North Iraq Oil Ban to Help Kurds Fight ISIL, August 20.
40.
Morris, L., & Murphy, B. (2014). Baghdad and Kurds Reach ‘Win-Win’ Accord over Iraq’s Oil Revenue. The Washington Post, August 16.
41.
Arango, T. (2014). Iraqi Government and Kurds Reach Deal to Share Oil Revenues. The New York Times, December 4. BBC Monitoring Europe (2014) Turkey Said Urging USA to Lift North Iraq Oil Ban to Help Kurds Fight ISIL, August 20.
42.
Arango, T. (2014). Iraqi Government and Kurds Reach Deal to Share Oil Revenues. The New York Times, December 4.
43.
Morris, L., & Murphy, B. (2014). Baghdad and Kurds Reach ‘Win-Win’ Accord over Iraq’s Oil Revenue. The Washington Post, August 16.
44.
Williams, T., & Al-Salhy, S. (2009). Clouds Gathering over Kirkuk; Iraq Takes Bids On Its Oil, While Many Kurds Try to Establish a Foothold. International Herald Tribune, May 29.
45.
Hauslohner, A., & Van Heuvelen, B. (2014). As Iraq Fractures, Kurds Consolidate Control of Kirkuk. The Washington Post, July 5.
46.
McGeough, P. (2005). Kurds Have the Power to Shape Iraq. The Age (Melbourne, Australia), February 12.
47.
Oppel, R. (2004). Iraq’s Kurds Enjoy Self-Rule and Are Trying to Keep It. The New York Times, December 31.
48.
BBC Monitoring Middle East (2008). Turkoman Figure Says Kurds Benefit from Destabilised Iraq, July 6.
49.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 58. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html.
50.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 140. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
51.
The Economist (2004). Why Iraq’s Army Crumbled, June 19.
52.
Chulov, M. (2017). Kurdish Forces Abandon Long-Held Lands to Iraqi Army and Shia Fighters. The Guardian, October 17.
53.
Anderson, L., & Stansfield, G. (2005). The Implications of Elections for Federalism in Iraq: Toward a Five-Region Model. Publius, Vol. 35, No. 3, 359–382.
54.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 61. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html.
55.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (2015). UK Government Policy on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq Eighth Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited.
56.
Alkadiri, R. (2010). Oil and the Question of Federalism in Iraq. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1315–1328.
57.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 121. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
58.
United Nations Security Council (2009). Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 6 of Resolution 1883. New York: United Nations.
59.
Ibid.
60.
Wilgenburg, W. (2012). Breaking from Baghdad: Kurdish Autonomy vs. Maliki’s Manipulation. World Affairs, Vol. 175, No. 4, 47–53.
61.
Fortson, D. (2008). Kurdistan Defies Iraqi Authorities on Oil Contracts. The Independent (London), February 9.
62.
Arango, T., & Krauss, C. (2013). A New Threat to Stability in Iraq; Kurds’ Oil Sales to Turkey Raise Concerns in United States of a Growing Independence. International New York Times, December 4.
63.
Iraqi Constitution (2005). Article 93. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf.
64.
Danilovich, A. (2014). Combining Islam and democracy in a Federal Constitution in A. Danilovich, (ed.), Iraqi Federalism and the Kurds: Learning to Live Together. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 159.
65.
Eklund, K., O’Leary, B., & Williams, P. (2005). Negotiating a Federation in Iraq, in B. O’Leary, J. McGarry, & K. Salih (eds.), The Future of Kurdistan. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
66.
Investors Chronical (2014). Three Oil Game Changers? July 2.
67.
Danilovich, A. (2014). Combining Islam and Democracy in a Federal Constitution, in A. Danilovich, (ed.), Iraqi Federalism and the Kurds: Learning to Live Together. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
68.
Bartu, P. (2010). Wrestling with the Integrity of a Nation: The Disputed Internal Boundaries in Iraq. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1329–1343.
69.
Ibid.
70.
Rubin, A.J., & Tavernise, S. (2008). Turkey’s Warplanes Attack Villages in Iraqi Kurdistan. The New York Times, February 5.
71.
Arraf, J. (2009). Kurdistan: Why It Could Spark New Front in Iraq War. Christian Science Monitor, July 24.
72.
The New York Times (2008). Kurds and the New Iraq, February 10.
73.
Bartu, P. (2010). Wrestling with the Integrity of a Nation: The Disputed Internal Boundaries in Iraq. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1329–1343.
74.
Steele, J. (2006). Comment & Debate: Iraq Is Already Enduring Two Wars. Could it Survive a Third?: The Competing Claims of Arabs, Turkomans, and Kurds in the Oil-Rich Iraqi North are an Explosion Waiting to Happen. The Guardian, December 1.
75.
International Crisis Group (2008). Oil for Soil: Toward a Grand Bargain on Iraq and the Kurds. Middle East Report, No. 80. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/oil-soil-toward-grand-bargain-iraq-and-kurds.
76.
BBC Monitoring Middle East (2011). Kurdistan Former PM Says ‘Iraq Will End up Like Sudan’ if Kurd Rights Ignored, January 22.
77.
Dagher, S. (2010). Election Victories Help Kurds in Iraq Push for More Sovereignty. The New York Times, May 3.
78.
Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 8 March 2004, Article 36. Accessed 31 December 2017, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45263d612.html.
79.
Newton-Small, J. (2014). Kurds Welcome US Help in Iraq, But Remember History of Betrayal. Time, August 12.
80.
Wilgenburg, W. (2012). Breaking from Baghdad: Kurdish Autonomy vs. Maliki’s Manipulation. World Affairs, Vol. 175, No. 4, 47–53.
81.
International Crisis Group (2003). War in Iraq: What’s next for the Kurds?’ Middle East Report, No. 10. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/war-iraq-whats-next-kurds.
82.
Arraf, J. (2009). Kurdistan: Why It Could Spark New Front in Iraq War. Christian Science Monitor, July 24.
83.
Spencer, R., & Huggler, J. (2014). Is This the End for the Yazidis? The Daily Telegraph (London), August 8.
84.
Contenta, S. (2003). Blood and Oil Flow in Kirkuk Iraq, Kurds, Turkey, United States all have eyes on Kirkuk. Toronto Star, February 22.
85.
Ward, O. (2007). Iraq’s Corner of Relative Calm; Surrounded by Hostile Factions, Kurdistan Set Its Sights on Construction Rather Than Confrontation in a Bid to Lure Tourists and Investors to the Battered Region. Toronto Star, May 12.
86.
Cockburn, P. (2009). Iraq Faces a New War as Tensions Rise in North; Violence Between Iraqi Kurds and Arabs Is Threatening an All Out Conflict That Could Complicate US Plans to Withdraw Troops. The Independent (London), February 23.
87.
Webster, P.C. (2009). Iraq is a hard place; The Violence Isn’t the Hard Part. For Talisman and Its Upstart Partner WesternZagros, Finding Oil in Kurdistan Will Be a Prelude to the Real Challenge: Coming to Terms with Two Governments That Don’t Believe in Each Other. The Globe and Mail (Canada), February 27.
88.
Dagher, S. (2010). Election Victories Help Kurds in Iraq Push for More Sovereignty. The New York Times, May 3.
89.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1770 (2007). Adopted by the Security Council at its 5729th meeting, on 10 August 2007. New York: United Nations.
90.
BBC Worldwide Monitoring (2007). Kurds Welcome UN Role in Iraq but Not Intervention in Kirkuk Issue. August 13.
91.
International Crisis Group (2008). Oil for Soil: Toward a Grand Bargain on Iraq and the Kurds. Middle East Report, No. 80. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Accessed 31 December 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iraq/oil-soil-toward-grand-bargain-iraq-and-kurds.
92.
Al Jazeera (2014). Iraq’s Kurds rule out any Kirkuk retreat, June 28.
93.
Owtram, F. (2014). The Federalisation of Natural Resources, in A. Danilovich, (ed.), Iraqi federalism and the Kurds: Learning to Live Together. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
94.
Wilgenburg, W. (2012). Breaking from Baghdad: Kurdish Autonomy vs. Maliki’s Manipulation. World Affairs, Vol. 175, No. 4, 47–53.
95.
Webster, P.C. (2009). Iraq is a Hard Place; The Violence Isn’t the Hard Part. For Talisman and Its Upstart Partner WesternZagros, Finding Oil in Kurdistan Will Be a Prelude to the Real Challenge: Coming to Terms with Two Governments That Don’t Believe in Each Other. The Globe and Mail (Canada), February 27.
96.
Oppel, R. (2008). State Department Inspector to Investigate Texas Oil Company’s Deal in Kurdistan. The New York Times, July 25.
97.
BBC Monitoring Europe (2012). Column Views Turkey’s Policy on Iraq, Syria, Kurds, July 30.
98.
Romano, D. (2010). Iraqi Kurdistan: Challenges of Autonomy in the Wake of US Withdrawal. International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1345–1359.
99.
Black, I. (2010). Kurdistan Pitches to Western Investors as Secure Gateway to Iraq. The Guardian, June 16.
100.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (2015). UK Government Policy on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq Eighth Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited.
101.
MacKinnion, M. (2014). Kurdistan; As Iraq Devolves into Chaos, Kurds Push for Independence. The Globe and Mail (Canada), July 4.
102.
Ibid.
103.
McKernan, B. (2017). Kurdistan Referendum: Erdogan says Iraqi Kurds risk ‘Ethnic War’ and Threatens Military Response to Vote. The Independent, September 26.
104.
Howard, M. (2007). International: Kurds Flee Homes as Iran Shells Villages in Iraq: Guerrillas in Clashes with Revolutionary Guards: Conflict Threatens Stability of Kurdistan Region. Guardian International, August 20.
105.
Spyer, J. (2011). Iran Strikes Across Border into Iraqi Kurdistan. Push to up Violence May Be Timed to Coincide with US Pullout. Jerusalem Post, July 20.
106.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (2015). UK Government Policy on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq Eighth Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited.
107.
Hafezi, P., & Karadeniz, T. (2017). Khamenei Says Iran, Turkey Must Act Against Kurdish Secession. Reuters, October 4.
108.
Salih, M. (2012). Syrian Conflict Threatens to Fracture Iraq; Semi-Autonomous Iraqi Kurdistan and the Central Iraqi Government are on a Collision Course as the Kurds Increasingly Side with the Syrian Opposition and Baghdad stands by the Assad Regime. The Christian Science Monitor, December 27.
109.
Ibid.

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School of Law and Government, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Dawn Walsh

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Dawn Walsh
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Walsh, D. (2018). Iraq: Iraqi Kurdistan, Unresolved Issues, and Changing International Priorities. In: Territorial Self-Government as a Conflict Management Tool. Federalism and Internal Conflicts. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77234-9_6

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77234-9_6
Published: 28 March 2018
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-77233-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-77234-9
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)

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