Abstract
This first empirical chapter adds flesh to theoretical debates and shows how automobile workers in Bursa, Turkey gave their full consent to proposed changes after an intensive exposure to new production principles at vocational schools. This chapter details the process that led to the development of a comprehensive transformation in skill formation schemes in Bursa enabling a smoother surplus extraction under a unitary system of government. Automobile producers in this province collaborated with the local governor for adding new modules to vocational education curricula that focused on behavioral change thanks to the absence of a broader political conflict. Public schools modified their curricula, and local labor unions actively promoted the participation of their members in similar seminars and trainings. Consequently, worker resistance to the introduction of flexible production schemes and just-in-time delivery was very short-lived thanks to a unitary system that brought local and central politicians onto the same page.
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Notes
- 1.
Interview with undisclosed FIAT worker, 28 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey .
- 2.
As stated in this report, “the automotive sector including car and parts producers will have a structure that is open to foreign competition, performing based on principles of economies of scale, using modern technology, and producing in line with international standards” Fifth Five-Year Development Plan, p. 68.
- 3.
As stated in this report, “in order to improve efficiency and fluidity of labor, on-the-job trainings and vocational education will be given particular attention. Necessary regulations will be undertaken in order to ensure the participation of private sector, in addition to state support, keeping in mind that vocational and technical education at every level will meet the demands of this country” Article 495 of fifth five-year development plan, SPO (1985) p.134.
- 4.
Fifth five-year development plan, Article 496.
- 5.
Ibid., Article 517.
- 6.
Ibid., Article 551.
- 7.
Sixth Five-Year Development Plan, p.339.
- 8.
For a discussion of Ozal government’s approach to decentralization , see Ozal 1987.
- 9.
The new law (#3360, article 14) granted the provincial government to plan and implement regional development programs. In addition to law that regulated the rights and duties of provincial governments, the central government issued decrees to provide legal status to regional organized industrial zones. For example, Demirtas Organized Industrial Zone in Bursa —which accommodates FIAT was granted a special status with Government Decree on 16 October 1989 (#20314).
- 10.
As stated in the report, “a yearly increase of 13% in production in this sector is planned in accordance with improvements in demand and exports.” Sixth Five-Year Development Plan, p. 243.
- 11.
The report also states that “quality in production and issues in standardization will be prioritized…In order to ensure the life-security of the public and improve export opportunities, the documentation of product standardization will be done in accordance to the rules and regulations determined by international and regional institutions.” Sixth Five-Year Development Plan, p. 243.
- 12.
“Oto Dunyasinda Hareket Var” (Action in the auto world) Cumhuriyet, 10 August 1990.
- 13.
“Japonlara karsi FIAT’ta devrim” (Revolution at FIAT against the Japanese), Cumhuriyet, 5 June 1990.
- 14.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 15.
Before this system, FIAT used to work with large stocks and the costs would increase tremendously when stocks were not eliminated in due time. Also, this created serious problems when there were production defects. Under the new system, once the target was reached, the management altered the production line and eliminated stations that produced specific parts so that new stations for updated and upgraded models could be installed. As Interview#11 reveals “when you are work with large stocks, it becomes very costly to re-install the former station and produce old parts to replace those with production errors.” Interview #11, Former FIAT Industrial Operations Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 16.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 15 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey .
- 17.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 18.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 19.
Interview#3, FIAT Manager, 30 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey .
- 20.
This finding is also consistent with the national survey across vocational and technical high school graduates. When asked to evaluate the contribution of vocational attitudes (mesleki tutum) and work-habitualization (is aliskanligi) acquired at school, around 68% of the respondents found these trainings “highly useful” or “useful” in relation to their current position at work. Report on the Follow-up project of Vocational and Technical School Graduates (Mesleki ve Teknik Egitim Kurumlari mezunlarinin izlenmesi projesi raporu) June 2007, Ministry of Education (Milli Egitim Bakanligi) Ankara, p. 44.
- 21.
Report on the Follow-up project of Vocational and Technical School Graduates (Mesleki ve Teknik Egitim Kurumlari mezunlarinin izlenmesi projesi raporu) June 2007, Ministry of National Education (Milli Egitim Bakanligi) Ankara, p. 39.
- 22.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 23.
Interview #6, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 26 December 2007, Bursa . This rate is consistent with an earlier finding of another survey conducted by the employee association MESS among their members: according to a 1994 research, 87% of vocational training center and vocational school graduates were evaluated as either “very quick” or “highly quick” in adapting to their new work environment during the first basic orientation program. See MESS Bulletin (Bulten), December 1994, p. 15. These findings also resonate with the results of the 2006 Ministry of Education national survey conducted among employers. For example, when asked about why they prefer vocational high school graduates, 29.89% of the respondents rank the ability of these graduates to adapt changing technology and work environment more smoothly as the primary reason; 29.57% of the employers highlight the overlap between the curriculum at school and production operations at the workplace; and finally, 21.14% of the respondents underline the higher ability of these graduates to communicate effectively and participate in teamwork . See Report on the Follow-up project of Vocational and Technical School Graduates (Mesleki ve Teknik Egitim Kurumlari mezunlarinin izlenmesi projesi raporu) June 2007, Ministry of National Education (Milli Egitim Bakanligi) Ankara, p. 75.
- 24.
Interview #6, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 26 December 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 25.
These workers were selected based on block sampling criteria I submitted to the management. The sample consists of 50 workers (all male), in four different age brackets. Half of the sample included workers who have been working in the factory for more than 20 years. The other half included workers with less than 20 years of work experience.
- 26.
In addition, workers also participated in CEDAC schemes. CEDAC stands for Cause and Effect Diagram with the Addition of Cards. It is visual, team-oriented problem solving methodology developed by Dr. Ryuji Fukuda. (See Fukuda 1996). According to Interview #11, “this was a lighter tool that was much easier for the workers to accept without much difficulty. In this way, the workers could identify and propose solutions to efficiency and productivity problems on the spot.” Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 27.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 28.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul. Jan Nahum served as FIAT CEO between 1993 and 2002.
- 29.
Interview #23, Former FIAT worker, 3 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 30.
In a way, this finding is also consistent with the findings of the Ministry of Education 2007 survey: among the graduates of vocational high schools, around 42.27% of the respondents are employed in a position that is somewhat related to their school training, while 19.68% of the graduates have jobs that are totally unrelated to their technical specialization at school. When combined, 62% of the total interviewees are employed in positions that do not directly correspond to their specialization. Report on the Follow-up project of Vocational and Technical School Graduates (Mesleki ve Teknik Egitim Kurumlari mezunlarinin izlenmesi projesi raporu) June 2007, Ministry of Education (Milli Egitim Bakanligi) Ankara.
- 31.
It must be noted though, that at FIAT , transfer from blue-collar to white-collar status is extremely hard and competitive.
- 32.
Interview #20, Former FIAT worker, 1 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 33.
Interview #20, Former FIAT worker, 1 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 34.
Interview #23, Former FIAT worker, 3 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 35.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 36.
Turkmetal training module notes (no date) (Turkmetal egitim ders notlari), p. 30.
- 37.
Ibid., p. 37.
- 38.
Ibid., p. 38.
- 39.
- 40.
Prominent Industrial Sectors in the Cities (Illerde One Cikan Sanayi Sektorleri), Basbakanlik DPT Publications, August 2006, p. 131.
- 41.
ANAP was founded by Turgut Ozal in 1983, following the transition to democracy. DYP was founded a few years later, and Suleyman Demirel, the arch-rival of Ozal , was elected as the party leader in 1988. ANAP was a right-liberal political party with an open admiration for Reagan and Thatcher style reforms. The business community that supported ANAP included some industrialists, but it overwhelmingly mobilized services and financial sector behind Turgut Ozal’s economic liberalization agenda. On the other hand, Suleyman Demirel’s DYP followed the line of AP, and endorsed a more statist approach to industrial development.
- 42.
The Council was also a platform to facilitate local interaction and transfer of information with respect to changing human capital needs of the city. Besides vocational education council, the participants also got together to debate employment related problems and concerns in two additional platforms: the Employment Council for the City of Bursa (Il Istihdam Kurulu) and Local Council for Employment Consultation (Mahalli Danisma Kurulu). Both of these institutions brought business and union representatives under the coordination of the local representative of National Ministry of Labor to discuss, evaluate and resolve employment related problems.
- 43.
The funds allocated for the use of the council were transferred to the general budget, instead of the budget of the local department of National Ministry of Education. The report also notes: “it is unacceptable of the state to raise resources for the use of improving the vocational education system and then not using the funds for this purpose. It will not be possible to convince people, organizations and institutions to donate to education as long as incorrect [policy] implementations like this are allowed” Eighth Five-Year Development Program, Secondary Education, General Education, Vocational Education, Technical Education, Private Advisory Committee Report, 2001 (Sekizinci Bes Yillik Kalkinma Plani, Ortaogretim, Genel Egitim, Meslek Egitimi, Teknik Egitim, Ozel Istisare Kurulu Raporu), p.78.
- 44.
During the 1990s, BTSO had close connections to DYP , and prominent members of this organization from textile and automotive sectors ran for an MP position (e.g. A. Osman Sonmez and Cavit Caglar). Some ended up in DYP government as ministers. See “Bursa Ithal Aday Cenneti” (Bursa is a Heaven of Import Candidates) Milliyet, 7 December 1995.
- 45.
In fact, Cetinkaya continued to voice his concern over reforming the apprentice training centers and vocational high schools once he was elected as an MP from DYP , in the national parliament. In 1997, Cetinkaya accused the ruling coalition-parties, including ANAP , of paying abysmal attention to human capital formation in a changing world of production. See http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/Tutanak_B_SD.birlesim_baslangic?P4=472&P5=B&PAGE1=65&PAGE2=67.
- 46.
Ridvan Yenisen was a close figure to DYP leader Tansu Ciller and campaigned in support for her during the 1995 elections. See Musa Agacik, Interview with Tansu Ciller and Ridvan Yenisen, 12 September 1995, Milliyet, p.17. He was also a frequent participant in party’s social gathering activities. See “DYP’nin Mangal Partisi” (DYP’s Barbecue Party), Milliyet, 3 January 1995, p.14.
- 47.
Yenisen was actively involved in the launching and administration of short-term skill training modules in Istanbul during his tenure as a Vice-Governor in Istanbul in 1987. During his period, Yenisen administered 151 courses in 42 vocational fields. See “Beceri kurslari issizligi onluyor” (Training Courses remedy unemployment ) Milliyet, 23 June 1987, p.3.
- 48.
Orhan Tasanlar later ran for MP from DYP in 2002. See “Adaylarin sagi solu yok” (There’s no left or right in candidates) Milliyet, 9 August 2002, p.20.
- 49.
See “Yesim Tekstil’de kalite bayrami” (Quality Fest at Yesim Tekstil) Hurriyet, 28 July 1998.
- 50.
Tasanlar set up an association for building a waste disposal and water cleaning system in the district and raised funds for installing the equipment necessary for this project. See interview with Erdem Saker, http://www.yenibursa.com/Artik&Adaylik&Dusunmuyorum&12.html.
- 51.
Source: Bursa Vocational Education and Training Council Meeting Minutes, 1991–2004. Compiled by the author.
- 52.
In 1997, Rahmi Koc (the CEO of FIAT’s partner Koc) was awarded with Supreme Service Medal for his services to the Turkish Republic by Suleyman Demirel, the president and the founder of DYP . The founder of Koc Holding, Vehbi Koc, was a close figure to the DYP line and had warm relations with Suleyman Demirel dating from the 1970s. (See for example, Demirel Koc’la gorustu (Demirel met Koc), Milliyet, 30 March 1993; “Demirel: Koc’un Reklamini Yapiyorum” (Demirel: I promote Koc) Milliyet, 4 December 1993; Yilmaz Cetiner: Koc’un Mutlulugu (Yilmaz Cetiner: Koc’s Happiness), Milliyet, 29 June 1995). It must be noted that though Demirel left the party leadership position in 1993 following his election to the presidency of Turkish republic, he had informal control over DYP cadres throughout the 1990s.
- 53.
Interview #6, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 26 December 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 54.
Interview #12, FIAT Industrial Operations Manager, 21 November 2007 and 15 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey .
- 55.
For example, during the early period in his leadership, a new department for auto-engine studies was opened in 1985. This was followed by the launching of computer, electronics and press departments in 1988. See http://www.demirtaspasa.k12.tr/.
- 56.
Right before his retirement, Bayrakci also worked toward launching of a leveling department, and opened up Anatolian technical high school of for engine studies as a part Demirtaspasa Vocational High Schools.
- 57.
According to Nikbay, in contrast to FIAT , other prominent firms, such as Renault (also in Bursa ) had always declined to accommodate interns until 2012. See http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/oib-de-otomotiv-egitimi-alan-ogrenciye-universitede-ogretecek-bir-sey-kalir-mi-21482689, accessed on 1 June 2017.
- 58.
This practice was becoming more common across other vocational schools in Turkey . For example, in 2004 Samsun Atakum Vocational industrial high school also took a similar lead to produce sound systems and energy systems for computers and created an additional source of income for the school management. For news coverage, see Sabah, 6 April 2004.
- 59.
In 2010, Nikbay was appointed as the first principal of a new vocational high school (Otomotiv Endüstrisi İhracatçıları Birliği Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi) which exclusively focused on training future workers to be employed in automobile firms. See http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/oib-de-otomotiv-egitimi-alan-ogrenciye-universitede-ogretecek-bir-sey-kalir-mi-21482689, accessed on 1 June 2017
- 60.
National Ministry of Education, Total Quality System in Technical Education 2001 (MEB Teknik Egitimde Toplam Kalite Yonetimi) MEB: Ankara.
- 61.
CNC is a computed based parts producing device. Upon entering the necessary commands, the equipment controls machine cutters to produce the material with desired shape. This is a very widely used tool across a broader array of industries, including automobile production.
- 62.
http://www.egitimportali.com/haber.php?hid=1691; accessed on 12 April 2010.
- 63.
Some of these graduates and their companies are: Fahrettin Gülener, Ermetal; Atilla Öztelcan, Kuzuflex; Mehmet Ülker, Meka Teknik; Serkan Köristan, Gera Makina; Ali Olağaner, Mutlusan; Necmettin Pınar, Pınar Metal; Ali Altınipek, Omega Otomotiv; Hulusi Burkay, Burkay Tekstil; Abdullah Bayrak, Elsisan; Nurettin Akbal, Ceyantek; Burak Selamet, Ünimak; Zeki Tunaoğlu, Tunaoğlu AŞ; Yusuf Meriç-Kadir Gümüş, Yuneka; Ali Tosun, Mutfakçılar AŞ; Sabri Evci, Revsan; Cengiz Malkoç, Karmod; Emin Işıkverenler, Başarır Kalıp; Yusuf Keser, ŞRK AŞ; Vehbi Varlık, İnoksan; Harun Keser, Kema Makine; İhsan Gürsu, Türkkar Otobüs; Erhan Kara, Hidro Tek; Fahri Tuğral, Tuğra Makina; Veli Kaynar, Hidrosel; Turgay Şenel, Modsan; Fevzi Uçar, Mimsa; Hüseyin Şahinkul, Şahunkul AŞ.
- 64.
Interview with Rahmi Ozyigit, Bursa Ekonomi Dergisi (Bursa Economy Journal), December 2007.
- 65.
Interview with Rahmi Ozyigit, Bursa Ekonomi Dergisi (Bursa Economy Journal), December 2007.
- 66.
Interview #6, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 26 December 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 67.
Interview #11, Former FIAT Manager, 29 November 2007, Istanbul, Turkey .
- 68.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 15 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey .
- 69.
The curriculum is modeled after the dual system in Germany, where the students receive theoretical training in the training center and have practical training in the factory. At Bosch Training Center, Bursa Ataturk Vocational Training Center management, which operates under the Ministry of Education office in Bursa , is responsible for the theoretical training, while the company is responsible for the practical training of young apprentices. BTSO is responsible for carrying the examination and accreditation of skills. http://www.boschtr.com/press/bulliten/bulliten_detail.asp?bid=66
- 70.
More recently, besides collaborating with the local politicians, BEGEV managers also applied to the EU and World Bank funds to finance the trainings.
- 71.
Interview #38, Former Turkmetal Bursa Branch Leader, 2 November 2007, Bursa ; and Interview #25, Turk-Is Confederation Regional Representative, Bursa , 10 January 2009. As Interview #38 puts it “...the union also needs to offer support services to secure [the loyalty of] members...these [workers] are paying their dues..[they] want to see something in return...that the union is doing service with their money.” Though the union leaders encouraged worker participation in leadership and quality seminars, some workers initially criticized the rules of participation and expressed their discontent with the selection process and criteria. In response, the union management excluded these older workers who were known to openly criticize union politics and leaders. Rather, the management selected younger and newly recruited workers to participate in the seminars on a non-random basis. The shopfloor leaders usually prepared a list of candidates among those who were relatively recently recruited to the union .
- 72.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 15 January 2008, Bursa , Turkey . Interview #6, FIAT Manager, 21 November 2007 and 26 December 2007, Bursa , Turkey . The behavioral trainings that FIAT workers participate under Turkmetal since 1999 are also partially supported by FIAT’s contribution to MESS . According to the management, the behavioral trainings offered by the union do not radically alter the behavior of a worker from one day to next, but they have an incremental effect to refresh and reaffirm what the workers have already been exposed to.
- 73.
Interview #12, FIAT Manager, Bursa , 21 November 2007.
- 74.
Interview #38, Former Turkmetal branch leader, Bursa , 2 November 2007.
- 75.
The willingness to transform the human capital profile of the rank -and-file in line with changing market demands was also reflected in the words of these former leaders. According to Interview #38, Turkmetal chose to negotiate and collaborate with the employers because “[they] did not want to have [rank -and-file] members laid off so [they] agreed to work without payment and have unpaid vacations when production would go low. Most of the workers received trainings in large enterprises like FIAT and Renault during times of crisis…It is the legal right of the employer to protect himself [by postponing production]. We are in favor of those enterprises [and people] that invest in this country and create new jobs. FIAT and Renault do this.” Interview #38, Former Turkmetal Bursa Branch Leader, 2 November 2007, Bursa , Turkey .
- 76.
In addition to the Bursa representatives of Turkmetal , the general leader of the union in Ankara, Mustafa Ozbek, was known to be an avid champion of DYP during the 1990s, and explicitly supported Demirel and Ciller government policy on decentralization , flexibilization and privatization . See “Susurluk’tan Turkiyem Topluluguna” 20 June 2006, http://www.etikhaber.com/content/view/19212/40/, accessed on 15 February 2010.
- 77.
The overlapping political orientation of the union leaders and company management also contributed to the development of further cooperation in behavioral training. Some researchers classify the relationship between the union , the company and the state as corporatist (Interview #37, Eskisehir, Turkey September 2007 and see also Nichols and Sugur 2004). Moreover, due to lack of democratic election mechanisms, Nichols and Sugur classify the union as autarchic. Other accounts reveal that the collaboration between Turkmetal and the company had non-democratic characteristics as well. For example, during the 1998 collective bargaining process many workers affiliated with Turkmetal withdrew their membership from the union to protest union leaders’ lack of dedication for higher wage increase rates. In response, the company managers are said to join Turkmetal leaders and are accused of pressuring and threatening the workers with lay-offs if they refuse to join back Turkmetal (see Nichols et al. 2002). My interviews with the factory management show that the managers classify the relationship as one that is based on maintaining “industrial peace and harmony.” The union representatives use a similar expression to define the relationship: “collaboration for mutual benefits.”
- 78.
Interview with worker RSD, Bursa , January 2008.
- 79.
Interview with worker NTK, Bursa , January 2008.
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Apaydin, F. (2018). All Quiet on the Turkish Front: Workers and Skill Formation After Fordism in a Unitary Setting in Bursa. In: Technology, Institutions and Labor. International Political Economy Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77104-5_3
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