Representatives of Each Race: Abolishing Inequalities in Colonial Politics

Johnson, Erica R.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76144-2_7

Erica R. Johnson⁴

Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series ((CIPCSS))

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Abstract

Philanthropic whites contributed politically to the Haitian Revolution. Some had an impact at critical junctures, such as when white radicals led various mobilization efforts, including the get-out-the-vote campaigns in 1793 to ratify the civil commissioners’ emancipation decrees. Others had a more subtle effect on the revolution through their continued political presence in Saint-Domingue before and during the Revolution. Despite their contributions, the literature has overlooked the role of colonial whites in Saint-Domingue’s revolution. Historians have focused upon the influence of whites from France, suggesting the politics of race came to the colony from the metropole, overlooking whites—some longtime residents of the colony—who participated in the revolutionary administrations alongside former slaves and men of color to achieve abolition and racial equality.

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Notes

1.
Stein, Leger Felicite Sonthonax; Anna Julia Cooper, Slavery and the French Revolutionists (1788–1805) Frances Richardson Keller, trans. (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellon Press, 1988); Roger G. Kennedy, Orders from France: The Americans and the French in a Revolutionary World, 1780–1820 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989).
2.
For his personnel file, see E182, ANOM; Lieutenant-Général Baron Pamphile de Lacroix , Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la révolution de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Pillet Ainé, 1820), p. 20; Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. I, p. 110.
3.
John D. Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 231.
4.
They treated this formerly prominent white colonist just as they would have an enslaved leader of a rebellion, such as Boukman Dutty in 1791.
5.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. I, p. 110; Léonard Leblois, au calomniateur THEROU, et à ses complices, tous colons blancs, ennemis nés de la liberté et de l’égalité, F 6 4, ANOM. See also Michelet, Mémoires d’une enfant, p. 191. Michelet explained that Ferrand de Baudières acted against his own interests and paid with his life.
6.
Thomas Madiou, in writing about Ferrand des Baudières, claimed that “the first martyr for liberty in Saint-Domingue was a white whose philanthropic sentiments distinguished his from others.” See Histoire d’Haïti, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Courtois, 1847), p. 37. Further, one nineteenth-century encyclopedia of France labeled Ferrand des Baudières “the first of the philanthropes who died in the colonies in defense of the rights of man.” See M. Ph. le Bas, France: Dictionnaire Encyclopédique, vol. 7 (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1842), p. 782.
7.
Cauna, Haïti: L’Eternelle Révolution, p. 75.
8.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, pp. 21–23.
9.
“Séance 28 September 1791, au matin,” Archives parlementaire, vol. 31, p. 438; Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. 2, pp. 306–311.
10.
Jean-François and Biassou to the Commissioners, 12 December 1791, translated and transcribed in Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789–1804: A Brief History with Documents (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 100–101.
11.
Jean-François and Biassou to the Commission, 21 December 1791, in Dubois and Garrigus , Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, p. 102.
12.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. 2, pp. 550–552.
13.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. 3, pp. 25–29; Dubois , Avengers of the New World, 137.
14.
Proclamation of 12 October 1792 in Jean-Philippe Garran de Coulon, Débats entre les accusateurs et les accusés, dans l’affaire des colonies, vol. 1 (Paris: Imprimeur nationale, 1795), pp. 42–47; Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. 3, p. 167, 173–175; Précis historique des annales de la révolution à St. Domingue, vol. 1, p. 86.
15.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 146.
16.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vo. 1, p. 162; Joseph Saint-Rémy, Pétion et Haïti: Etude monographique et historique (Paris: Librairie Berger-Levrault, 1956), p. 71.
17.
Larchevesque-Thibaud and d’Augy, “Lettre de l’Assemblée provinciale de la partie du Nord de St-Domingue, à Messieurs des comités de l’Ouest et du Sud, sur le projet d’ordonnance pour la convocation d’une assemblée générale de la colonie,” 24 Décembre 1789 (s.i.: n.p., 1790). D’Augy, one of the heads of “the colonial party,” fled for France in December 1792, having disagreed with Sonthonax’s attempts to integrate the Regiment of Le Cap. H. Castonnet des Fosses, La perte d’une colonie, la révolution de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Librairie Africaine et Coloniale, 1893), p. 116.
18.
“Réponses, 96–80 Raboteau (Antilles, Guyane, Louisiane),” Généalogie et Histoire de la Caraïbe, no. 87 (1996), pp. 1794–1795.
19.
Chotard published several books related to revolutionary events after fleeing Saint-Domingue. See Chotard, Précis de la révolution de Saint-Domingue, depuis la fin de 1789, jusqu’au 18 juin 1794 (Philadelphia: Parent, 1795), Quelle peut être la garantie de la République française dans ses colonies des Antilles? (Paris: Courcier, 1800), and Origine des malheurs de Saint-Domingue développement du système colonial, et moyens de restauration (Bordeaux: Dubois et Coudert, an XIII [1805?]). After returning to Paris, he also printed a newspaper in 1796, the Journal historique de la marine et des colonies.
20.
Saint-Rémy, Pétion et Haïti, p. 71.
21.
Garrigus , Before Haiti, p. 289; Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 119.
22.
Only nine members of the Commission signed the proclamation, and the missing signatories were three men of color. Commission intermédiaire, 25 Octobre 1792, DXXV 112, AN.
23.
Proclamation of 12 Octobre 1792 in Garran de Coulon, Débats entre les accusateurs et les accusés, pp. 46–47.
24.
Popkin, You Are All Free, pp. 258–259. For more on Robquin, see his Legion of Honor dossier, LH/2357/17, AN.
25.
Robquin quoted in Elizabeth Colwill, “‘Fêtes de l’Hymen, Fêtes de la Liberté’: Marriage, Manhood, and Emancipation in Revolutionary Saint-Domingue,” in The World of the Haitian Revolution, p. 125.
26.
Vergniaud to the Commission of the Marine, 26 nivôse an 3, EE 1761 1, ANOM.
27.
Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, pp. 54–55; Stein, Léger Félicité Sonthonax, pp. 88–89.
28.
Sonthonax to Polverel , 25 August 1793, DXXV 44, AN quoted in Stein, Léger Félicité Sonthonax, p. 89.
29.
Etienne Polverel, 21 September 1793, DXXV 10, AN.
30.
While the commissioners could have had a strong influence over the elections, the session of the electoral assembly was open to the public, ensuring at least the appearance of a democratic process. Stein, Léger Félicité Sonthonax, p. 95. For brief biographies of each representative, see Adolph Robert, Edgar Bourloton, and Gaston Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français de 1789 à 1889 (Paris: Bourloton, 1891). Belley, vol. 1, p. 245; Boisson, vol. 1, p. 366; Dufay, vol. 2, p. 456; Garnot, vol. 3, p. 118; and Mills, vol. 4, p. 376.
31.
“Décret d’ordre du jour sur la demande du citoyen Laforest aîné, premier suppléant de la partie du Nord de Saint-Domingue,” 2 Thermidor an 2, Collection des lois et décrets: Approuvée et encouragée par le comité de salut public de la Convention Nationale, vol. 2 (Douai: Lagarde, 1794–1795), p. 53.
32.
Lettre écrite de New-Yorck par les députés de Saint-Domingue, à leurs commettans. Imprimée par ordre de la Convention Nationale, 14 December 1793; Robert, Bourloton, and Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français, vol. 3, p. 118.
33.
“Discours d’un des députés de Saint-Domingue prononcé dans la séance du 16 pluviôse, promis dans le numéro d’hier,” Réimpression de l’Ancien Moniteur, depuis la réunion des états-généraux jusqu’au consulat, vol. 19 (Paris: Bureau Central, 1941), p. 393.
34.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, 157. During their stopover in the United States, the deputies encountered some French citizens who shared their ideas. Dufay detailed the positive treatment he and his colleagues received from Edmond Charles Genet and their “brothers, the true French.” Dufay to the civil commissioners, 4 October 1793, Dxxv 6, Dossier 54, AN.
35.
The proslavery lobbyists Pierre François Page and Augustin-Jean Brulley pressured the Committee of General Security to arrest the deputies. Garran, Rapport sur les troubles, vol. 4, pp. 556–560.
36.
Florence Gauthier, “Inédits de Belley, Mills et Dufay, députes de Saint-Domingue, de Roume et du Comité de Salut public,” Annales historiques de la Révolution française, no. 302 (1995), p. 607.
37.
The National Convention, “The Abolition of Slavery,” 4 February 1794 translated and transcribed in Dubois and Garrigus , Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, pp. 129–132.
38.
“Discours d’un des députés de Saint-Domingue prononcé dans la séance du 16 pluviôse,” pp. 389–391, 394.
39.
Letter from René François Borno-Déléard, 3 March 1794, Dxxv 28, Dossier 288, AN.
40.
Recueil des dépositions faites pour et contre le Sr. P. Dormenon, pp. 7–8.
41.
Jacques Nicolas Léger, Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors (Westport, Connecticut: Negro Universities Press, 1970), p. 71.
42.
Motion d’ordre faite par Dufay, député de Saint-Domingue, sur les moyens de rétablir l’ordre dans les colonies, Conseil des Cinq-Cents, 3 Vendémiaire an 6 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, an 6), p. 2.
43.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 205.
44.
Stein, Leger Félicité Sonthonax, p. 161.
45.
Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 2007), pp. 132–134.
46.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 205.
47.
J.-C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Editions Henri Deschamps, 1958), p. 91.
48.
Beaubrun Ardouin, Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti suivies de la vie du général J.-M. Borgella, vol. 3 (Paris: Dezobry et E. Magdeleine, 1853), p. 310.
49.
Bernard Gainot, “La société des amis des noirs et des colonies, 1796–1799,” La Société des Amis des Noirs, 1788–1799: Contribution à l’histoire de l’abolition de l’esclavage, Marcel Dorigny and Bernard Gainot (Paris: UNESCO, 1998), p. 340, 337.
50.
Bernard Gainot, “The Constitutionalization of General Freedom under the Directory,” The Abolitions of Slavery: From L. F. Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848 (Paris: UNESCO, 2003), p. 183.
51.
Carolyn E. Fick, “The Saint-Domingue Slave Revolution and the Unfolding of Independence, 1791–1804,” The World of the Haitian Revolution, Geggus and Fiering, eds., p. 179.
52.
Rapport fait par Doulcet…sur les élections de Saint-Domingue, 5 Ventôse, an V (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1797); Gainot, “The Constitutionalization of General Freedom under the Directory,” pp. 180–196. For brief biographies of each representative see Robert, Bourloton, and Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français.
53.
Miranda Frances Spieler, Empire and Underworld: Captivity in French Guiana (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012), p. 55.
54.
Rapport fait par Doulcet, p. 2.
55.
Ibid., p. 4.
56.
Ibid., pp. 6–7.
57.
Auguste Kuscinski, Les députés au corps législative, conseil des cinq-cents, conseil des anciens, de l’an iv à l’an vii (Paris: Société de l’histoire de la révolution française, 1905), pp. 178–179.
58.
Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 151; Nelly Schmidt, Abolitionnistes de l’esclavage et réformateurs des colonies: 1820–1851: analyze et documents (Karthala, 2000), p. 56; and Lawrence C. Jennings, French Anti-Slavery: The Movement for the Abolition of Slavery in France, 1802–1848 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 3. See also Dorigny and Gainot, La Société des Amis des Noirs, 1788–1799.
59.
Drescher, Abolition, p. 151.
60.
Bernard Gainot, “La société des amis des noirs et des colonies,” pp. 329–367.
61.
Ibid., pp. 329–330.
62.
Ibid., pp. 332–334.
63.
Ibid., p. 336, 359.
64.
Ibid., p. 355.
65.
Napoleon Bonaparte, “Proclamation to the Citizens of Saint-Domingue,” in Laura Mason and Tracey Rizzo, The French Revolution: A Document Collection (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), p. 348.
66.
Napoleon Bonaparte, “Meeting of the Council of the State on the Subject of the Colonies,” 16 August 1880, in Autour de Bonaparte. Journal de comte P.-L. Roederer, ministre et conseiller d’état, (Paris: Daragon, 1909), 16.
67.
Précis historique des annales de la révolution à St. Domingue, Vol. 2, p. 144; Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 242.
68.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 242; Moïse, Le Projet National de Toussaint Louverture, pp. 31–32, 35.
69.
Moïse, Le Projet National de Toussaint Louverture, pp. 31–32, 35, 37.
70.
Ibid., pp. 38–39.
71.
Constitution of the French Colony of Saint-Domingue, in Dubois and Garrigus , Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, p. 168.
72.
Ibid.
73.
Philippe Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2011), p. 28.
74.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, and Périès to Lagarde, 29 August 1801, printed in Gabriel Debien and Pierre Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc (1789–1801): Les Lettres de Périez,” Revue de la Société haïtienne d’histoire et de géographie, vol. 44, no. 151 (1986), p. 35.
75.
Dufay to the civil commissioners, 4 October 1793, Dossier 54, DXXV 6, ANOM.
76.
Police prefect to the Minister of the General Police, 28 prairial an 9, F7 6266, AN.
77.
“Rapport au Premier Consul sur Gaston de Nogérée envoyé de Toussaint-Louverture,” 15 Nivose an 10, F7 6266, AN.
78.
“Notes sur Vincent de St. Domingue,” F7 6266, AN.
79.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 49.
80.
Vauneuf to the Minister of the Marine, 26 July 1792, E 384, ANOM.
81.
Vauneuf to the Minister of the Marine, 8 June 1800, quoted in François Blancpain, La condition des paysans haïtiens: du code noir aux codes ruraux (Paris: Editions Karthala, 2003), p. 107.
82.
Popkin, You Are All Free, p. 329, 341–344, 352–354.
83.
Paul François Page, Traité d’économie politique et de commerce des colonies, vol. 2, quoted in Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 186.
84.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 35.
85.
Colonel Malenfant, Des Colonies, et particulièrement de celle de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Chez Audibert, 1814), p. 128.
86.
Bernard Gainot, “La société des amis des noirs et des colonies,” pp. 341–344, 366.
87.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 61.
88.
Carl Ludwig Lokke, “The Leclerc Instructions,” The Journal of Negro History vol. 10, no. 1 (1925), pp. 94–95.
89.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Gabriel Debien and Pierre Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc (1789–1801): Les Lettres de Périez,” Revue de la Société haïtienne d’histoire et de géographie, vol. 44, no. 151 (1986), p. 35.
90.
Dubois, Avengers of the New World, p. 227.
91.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 33.
92.
Moreau de Saint Méry, Description topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie française de Saint-Domingue, Blanche Maurel and Etienne Taillemite, eds., vol. 3 (Paris: Société de l’histoire des colonies françaises, 1958), p. 1369.
93.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” Annexe I in Auguste, Claude Bonaparte, Les déportés de Saint-Domingue: Contribution à l’histoire de l’expédition française de Saint-Domingue, 1802–1803 (Sherbrooke, Québec: Editions Naaman, 1979), p. 140, 141.
94.
Jean Lavalatte to Rochambeau, 24 June 1802, Calendar of the Rochambeau Papers, ed. Laura V. Monti (Gainesville: University of Florida Libraries, 1972), p. 80.
95.
Leclerc to the Minister of the Marine, 18 July 1802, Lettres du General Leclerc, Paul Roussier, ed. (Paris: Société de l’histoire des colonies françaises, 1937), p. 194.
96.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 152.
97.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 138.
98.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 152. Bunel has “often” been “described as mixed race in the English-language literature.” This may be unintentional, as an eighteenth-century white Frenchman’s political and familial collaboration across racial lines may seem inconceivable for some modern authors. Girard explains the mistaken racial characterization of Bunel as “a logical shortcut that overlooked the considerable racial complexity prevailing in Dominguan society.” See Girard, “Trading Races: Joseph and Marie Bunel, a Diplomat and a Merchant in Revolutionary Saint-Domingue and Philadelphia,” Journal of the Early Republic, vol. 30, no. 3 (2010), p. 361.
99.
It was also this complexity that brought Bunel back to Haiti after its independence, welcomed by Dessalines and Christophe. See Girard, “Trading Races,” pp. 369–373.
100.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35.
101.
Garry Willis, ‘Negro President’: Jefferson and the Slave Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), p. 41.
102.
Jacques de Cauna, “La face cache de Toussaint Louverture,” Saint-Domingue espagnol et la révolution nègre d’Haïti (1790–1822), Alain Yacou, ed. (Paris: Karthala, 2007), p. 311.
103.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 108.
104.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 140.
105.
Jacques Nicolas Léger, Haiti, her history and her detractors (New York: Neale, 1907), p. 293.
106.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35.
107.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon, p. 125.
108.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 138.
109.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35.
110.
Ibid., p. 35, 33.
111.
“Biographical index,” La révolution de Haïti, ed. Pierre Pluchon (Paris: Karthala, 1995), p. 499.
112.
Lokke, “The Leclerc Instructions,” p. 94.
113.
Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 2007), p. 225.
114.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 139.
115.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35.
116.
Victor Emmanuel Leclerc, Decree, 26 August 1802, Calendar of the Rochambeau Papers, p. 122.
117.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35. Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 140. Périès spelled her name Denayre, while Vincent spelled it Danire. Within the Rochambeau Papers, her name is spelled Denaire and Denayre. See for example record numbers 102 and 545, Calendar of the Rochambeau Papers, ed. Laura V. Monti, p. 21, 79.
118.
“Biographical index,” La révolution de Haïti, ed. Pierre Pluchon (Paris: Karthala, 1995), p. 481.
119.
Antoine Michel, La Mission du General Hédouville à Saint-Domingue (Port-au-Prince: La Presse, 1929), p. 85.
120.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 138.
121.
Périès to Minister of the Marine and Colonies, 28 August 1801, printed in Debien and Pluchon, “Avant l’Expédition Leclerc,” p. 35.
122.
Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti, vol. II (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de Jh. Courtois, 1847), p. 268.
123.
Ibid.
124.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 147.
125.
Adolphe Cabon, Histoire d’Haïti: La Révolution, 1798–1804, vol. iv (Brest: Imprimerie de la Presse libérale, 1937), 270. In his elegy before the Agricultural Society of the Department of Seine et Oise, Antoine Challan expressed, “The disastrous circumstances which followed and accompanied their arrival, did not permit the Colonial Prefect to engage in the philanthropy of his character.” Antoine-D.-J.-B. Challan, Eloge historique de Pierre Benezech, Conseiller d’état (Versailles: Jacob, 1803), p. 25.
126.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 147.
127.
Michèle Oriol, “Télémaque, César,” Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution et de l’Indépendance d’Haïti, 1789–1804 (Port-au-Prince: Fondation pour la Recherche Iconographique et Documentaire et Michèle Oriol, 2002), p. 245.
128.
Vincent, “Notice sur un grand nombre d’hommes civils et militaires,” in Les déportés de Saint-Domingue, p. 138.
129.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 89.
130.
Leclerc to the Minister of the Marine, 9 February 1802, Lettres du General Leclerc, p. 72.
131.
Oriol, “Télémaque, César,” p. 245.
132.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 324.
133.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, pp. 136–137, 119.
134.
Ardouin, Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti, vol. 5, 1853–1860), pp. 492–493.
135.
Ardouin, Etudes sur l’histoire d’Haïti, vol. 7, pp. 519–520.
136.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 35.
137.
Rapport du Premier Consul, 23 April 1801, EE760 33, ANOM.
138.
Dubois , Avengers of the New World, p. 285; Gainot, “La société des amis des noirs et des colonies,” p. 360.
139.
Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon, p. 312.
140.
Miranda Frances Spieler explains how Saint-Domingue lacked a constitutional framework for most of the 1790s. For example, the colony lacked an official court system, and most of the legal responsibilities were handled by the remaining notaries. See Spieler, “The Legal Structure of Colonial Rule during the French Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly vol. LXVI, no. 2 (2009), pp. 365–408.

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Johnson, E.R. (2018). Representatives of Each Race: Abolishing Inequalities in Colonial Politics. In: Philanthropy and Race in the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76144-2_7

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