Abstract
This chapter focuses on press coverage of South Korea during the first year of the Korean War. It shows how debates over the legitimacy of South Korea in the United States were rapidly displaced by a broader Cold War narrative and explores why reports of atrocities by South Korean forces against civilians failed to develop any kind of narrative momentum. It reveals how the Syngman Rhee regime began to improve its public relations operations in response to the radically changed geopolitical environment. The chapter argues that a complex array of factors—including assumptions about the nature of war in the “Orient,” the front line focused nature of wartime coverage and the simplistic anti-communism of many American correspondents—influenced the way they wrote about South Korean authoritarianism.
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Notes
- 1.
Susan Brewer, Why America Fights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 151.
- 2.
“The 8 O’Clock Broadcast,” Time, 17 July 1950.
- 3.
Marilyn Young, “Hard Sell: The Korean War,” in Selling War in a Media Age, ed. Kenneth Osgood and Andrew K. Frank (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2010), 113–39.
- 4.
“Right Attack Repelled In Korea,” Daily Worker, 27 June 1950; “Finding the Aggressor,” Christian Science Monitor, 29 June 1950.
- 5.
Sulzberger to James, 7 July 1950, Box 192, New York Times Company Records. Arthur Hays Sulzberger Papers, Manuscripts and Archives Division, NYPL.
- 6.
AP, “South Korea Free Only Two Years,” Los Angeles Times, 25 June 1950.
- 7.
Richard Johnston, “Misfortune Beset Regime in Seoul,” New York Times, 27 June 1950.
- 8.
Only two major newspapers opposed the war, the isolationist Chicago Daily Tribune and the Daily Worker: AP, “Reds Back Combat with Propaganda,” Hartford Courant, 26 July 1950.
- 9.
“Syngman Rhee, Symbol of Korea’s Plight, Faces Crisis in Homeland after His 50-Year Fight for Liberation,” U.S. News and World Report, 7 July 1950.
- 10.
Hill’s interlocutors included Stewart Meacham, the Labor Department adviser who had denounced the occupation government for conniving with Syngman Rhee in 1947, Roger Baldwin, the head of the ACLU, and Ernest A. Gross, a US diplomat who was then the acting head of the American delegation to the UN: Hill to Kim, 27 February 1951, Box 1, Yong-jeung Kim Papers, Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University in the City of New York.
- 11.
Ernie Hill, “Rhee played down in U.N. war aims,” Chicago Daily News, 17 July 1950.
- 12.
“Liberation Forces at Gates of Seoul as Rhee Support Fades,” Daily Worker, 27 June 1950. The Daily Worker was the official newspaper of the American Communist Party.
- 13.
The possibility that the ROK had attacked first was taken more seriously in Europe, where American investigative journalist Izzy Stone was working as a foreign correspondent. Skeptical French newspaper reports inspired Stone to publish a contrarian account of the Korean War which suggested that the conflict may have been planned by the ROK and the United States. Although the book had very little impact when it was published, these allegations were given new life by Bruce Cumings in the 1980s: Isidor Feinstein Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1952).
- 14.
Richard L. Strout, “Success of U.S. Line Pinned to Verve of South Koreans,” Christian Science Monitor, 28 June 1950.
- 15.
“The Shape of Things,” Nation, 22 July 1950. For an overview of how political opinion journals wrote about Rhee during the first six months of the war, see Dane J. Cash, “The Forgotten Debate: American Political Opinion Journals and the Korean War, 1950–1953” (Unpublished Ph.D. Diss.: Boston University, 2012), 21–6.
- 16.
Siegbert Kaufmann, “Korea’s political problems,” Hartford Courant, 29 June 1950.
- 17.
Yong-jeung Kim, Letter “Korea Under the UN,” Washington Post, 5 July 1950.
- 18.
Paul W. Ward, “South Koreans Keep Up Fight,” Baltimore Sun, 16 July 1950.
- 19.
“The ‘Will to Fight’,” New York Times, 8 July 1950; Carl W. McCardle, “Was It Another Pearl Harbor?,” Boston Globe, 6 July 1950.
- 20.
Harry S. Truman, Public Papers of the Presidents, 1950–1953, 19 July 1950. This address was President Truman’s first major statement on the war.
- 21.
Dulles to McWilliams, 18 July 1950, Box 285, John Foster Dulles Papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University.
- 22.
John Foster Dulles, “To Save Humanity From the Deep Abyss,” New York Times, 30 July 1950. Dulles sent a memo containing many of the same observations to Dean Acheson at the end of June, which formed the basis of a statement to the press on 1 July: Dulles to Acheson, 29 June 1950, FRUS 1950, 7, 237; Press Release No. 705, 1 July 1950, Box 301, John Foster Dulles Papers, Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University.
- 23.
Higgins, War in Korea: The Report of a Woman Combat Correspondent, 163.
- 24.
For a full account of the clash between US authorities and the press, see Casey, Selling the Korean War: Propaganda, Politics, and Public Opinion in the United States, 1950–1953, 41–66.
- 25.
Cumings, The Korean War: A History, 78.
- 26.
Tirman, The Deaths of Others: The Fate of Civilians in America’s Wars, 115–16.
- 27.
For the full account of this story, see Hanley, Mendoza and Choe, The Bridge at No Gun Ri: A Hidden Nightmare from the Korean War.
- 28.
The US government claimed that there had been no high-level order to shoot on civilians at No Gun Ri following its own investigation: Office of the Inspector General, No Gun Ri Review (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2001). Military historian Robert Bateman also revealed that one of AP’s main witnesses had lied about being at No Gun Ri and alleged that the AP investigation had misrepresented much of the evidence: Robert L. Bateman, No Gun Ri: A Military History of the Korean War Incident (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002). On the other hand, historian Sahr Conway-Lanz later discovered a letter by US Ambassador John Muccio suggesting that the policy of shooting on civilians had been endorsed at the highest levels: Sahr Conway-Lanz, “Beyond No Gun Ri: Refugees and the United States Military in the Korean War,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 1 (2005), 49–81.
- 29.
The number of South Koreans who were killed by ROK forces during this period remains highly contentious. In 1968, former US diplomat Gregory Henderson claimed that South Korean forces executed tens of thousands—and probably over 100,000—suspected communist during the early stages of the war but did not provide substantive evidence. In 2008, the findings of the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission suggested that Henderson’s numbers were plausible based on excavations at execution sites, eyewitness accounts and photographic records found in US government archives: Henderson, The Politics of the Vortex, 167; Do Khiem and Kim Sung-soo, “Crimes, Concealment and South Korea’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission,” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 6, no. 8 (2008). For an account of ROK atrocities during the liberation phase of the war, see Callum MacDonald, “‘So Terrible a Liberation’—The UN Occupation of North Korea,” Bulletin Of Concerned Asian Scholars 23, no. 2 (1991), 3–19.
- 30.
Knightley, The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Iraq, 374–6. British reporters who witnessed and wrote about the brutality of South Korean executions included the Picture Post’s James Cameron and the London Times’ Louis Heren. The Daily Telegraph’s Reginald Thompson published a sympathetic and disturbing account of the impact of the war on Korean civilians in his book Cry Korea, although his actual dispatches from Korea were remarkably conventional and made no mention of South Korean atrocities . Melbourne Herald correspondent Alan Dower reportedly intervened in the execution of a group of Korean women and children by threatening to kill the jail’s governor. When United Nations officials pleaded with him not to publish the story, he agreed on the proviso that no further executions occurred: James Cameron, Point of Departure (London: Panther Books, 1967); Reginald Thompson, Cry Korea: The Korean War: A Reporter’s Notebook (London: Reportage Press, 2009).
- 31.
Knightley, The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Iraq, 389.
- 32.
Marilyn Young wrote about several of these dispatches, albeit not in the context of a study of American journalism. Young, “Hard Sell: The Korean War,” 127–30.
- 33.
Rutherford Poats, “Rifle butts break backs of guerrillas,” Chicago Daily News, 10 July 1950. The story appeared amidst a flurry of reports about communist atrocities against American troops, which were generally given much greater prominence by newspapers. Nonetheless, at least two other UP articles about atrocities referenced Poats’ story: UP, “Korean Reds Who Executed Yanks Are Promised Trials,” Tuscaloosa News, 11 July 1950; UP, “End Atrocities, U.N. Appeals to Both Sides,” Gazette and Daily, 13 July 1950.
- 34.
Stewart Lone and Gavin McCormack, Korea Since 1850 (New York: St Martin Press, 1993), 121.
- 35.
Communist correspondent Alan Winnington claimed that Korean Military Advisory Group officials had supervised the execution of around 7000 people near Taejon in a story for the British Daily Worker in August 1950. Although the allegations were dismissed as communist propaganda at the time, recent studies have indicated that US military authorities were at least aware of the massacre: Alan Winnington, “U.S. Belsen in Korea,” Daily Worker (UK), 9 August 1950; Bruce Cumings, “The South Korean Massacre at Taejon: New Evidence on US Responsibility and Coverup,” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 6, no. 7 (2008).
- 36.
Keyes Beech, “1,200 Red Spies Shot in S. Korea,” Chicago Daily News, 13 July 1950.
- 37.
John Osborne, “The Ugly War,” Time, 21 August 1950.
- 38.
Charles Grutzner, “27 Executed in Seoul Cemetery for Collaboration With Red Foe,” New York Times, 3 November 1950. Grutzner may also have made a reference to the alleged American massacre of Korean civilians at No Gun Ri when he claimed that a senior officer had criticized the “panicky” shooting of civilians by one US regiment: Charles Grutzner, “Stranded Enemy Soldiers Merge With Refugee Crowds in Korea,” New York Times, 30 September 1950; Sweeney, The Military and the Press: An Uneasy Truce, 132.
- 39.
The order was mentioned at the end of an account of a mass execution witnessed by AP’s Bill Shinn, who suggested that it could be the last story of its kind: Bill Shinn, “Writer Sees 20 Koreans Put to Death by Squad,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 7 November 1950. The Tribune called for the Army to revoke the order in an editorial a few days later: “Mass Executions in Korea,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 9 November 1950.
- 40.
Peter Kalischer, “2 U.S. Priests Protest as S. Koreans Kill Prisoners by Hundreds,” Washington Post, 17 December 1950. Another UP story on the same topic appeared the next day: UP, “British Troops Bar Executions,” New York Times, 18 December 1950.
- 41.
Charles B. Marshall, Letter “Holds War Reports Reflect Lack of Censorship, Not Inaccuracy,” Chicago Daily News, 19 July 1950.
- 42.
“A Matter of Convenience,” Time, 25 December 1950.
- 43.
Ernest Bevin to Sir Oliver Franks, 27 October 1950, No. 68. DBPO, Series II, Vol. 4, Korea, June 1950–April 1951.
- 44.
Marius Livingston, Letter “Korean Executions Protested,” New York Times, 28 December 1950; Allen Neave, Letter “Korean Massacres,” Washington Post, 21 December 1950; Dewitt Mackenzie, “Mass Execution Reminds War Demands Are Harsh,” Spokane Daily Chronicle, 13 November 1950. This was similar to the view presented by Dean Rusk, US Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia, in a meeting with the British Ambassador in late October: “Under war conditions, particularly where extremely bitter fighting has taken place, there might be instances of atrocities committed by members of any of the armed forces engaged…. it is not easy to curb troops who find their comrades tied together and shot”: Memorandum of Conversation, Assistant Sec of State (Rusk), 28 October 1950, FRUS 1950, 7, 1004–5.
- 45.
Richard B. Joyce, Letter “Holds War Reports Reflect Lack of Censorship, Not Inaccuracy,” Chicago Daily News, 19 July 1950.
- 46.
“Terror In Korea,” Washington Post, 20 December 1950.
- 47.
Telford Taylor, Letter “Atrocities in Korea,” New York Times, 16 July 1950.
- 48.
For more on how the concept of Asian brutality became a mainstay of World War II propaganda, see John Dower, War without Mercy: Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1987).
- 49.
E. J. Kahn, The Peculiar War: Impressions of a Reporter In Korea (New York: Random House, 1951), 116.
- 50.
Hanson Baldwin, “Spirit as a War Factor,” New York Times, 21 August 1950.
- 51.
In the first months of the war, AP was praised for “keeping dramatic frontline reactions in focus,” although some editors asked for even more human-oriented coverage in the style of Ernie Pyle, a World War II reporter famous for his folksy American soldier-centric stories: Gould to Brines, 17 July 1950, Korean War Coverage Reaction, August 1950, Subject Files, General Files, AP Corporate Archives; Sutton to Gould, 21 July 1950, Korean War Coverage Reaction, August 1950, Subject Files, General Files, AP Corporate Archives.
- 52.
Louis Heren, Memories of Times Past (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1988), 138. Around 40,000 British, 26,000 Canadian and 17,000 Australian troops served in Korea, compared with roughly 1.8 million Americans. For more details, see Gordon L. Rottman, Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002).
- 53.
Frank Gibney, “The First Three Months of War: A Journalist’s Reminiscences of Korea,” The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 2, no. 1 (1993), 104. See also King, Tail of the Paper Tiger, 100.
- 54.
Beech’s credibility as a reporter was regularly used to promote the Chicago Daily News’ war coverage: “Beech lauded by U.S. aide from Japan,” Chicago Daily News, 14 July 1950. The Times rarely edited the dispatches of its correspondents in this period: James Reston, Deadline: A Memoir (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1992), 223. Osborne was highly respected by his colleagues and notorious for demanding that his editors print his stories verbatim or not print them at all: Gottfried to Osborne, 12 August 1950, Journalism File, Box 2, John Osborne Papers, Library of Congress.
- 55.
Rutherford Poats Oral History by W. Haven North, 13 January 1999, United States Foreign Assistance Oral History Program Foreign Assistance, Oral History Collection Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Library of Congress.
- 56.
Charles Grutzner, “Stranded Enemy Soldiers Merge with Refugee Crowds in Korea,” New York Times, 30 September 1950; Charles Grutzner , “A Few G.I.’s Abuse Koreans in Seoul,” New York Times, 20 December 1950. This latter story, along with a report on a new kind of fighter jet being used in Korea, led to Grutzner being called in front of a Senate inquiry in 1955 to defend himself from accusations that he had aided the communists: Allen Drury, “Times Man Accused of Aid to Reds in Copy, Denies It,” New York Times, 1 July 1955.
- 57.
Higgins, War in Korea: The Report of a Woman Combat Correspondent, 193.
- 58.
Marguerite Higgins, “Reply to spies in South Korea: Firing squads,” New York Herald Tribune, 14 July 1950.
- 59.
For a full list of reporters assigned to Korea by each press agency, see “News Services Had 129 Men in Korea,” Editor & Publisher, 22 August 1953.
- 60.
King, Tail of the Paper Tiger, 532–3.
- 61.
Bill Shinn, “Writer Sees 20 Koreans Put to Death by Squad,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 7 November 1950; Bill Shinn, The Forgotten War Remembered, Korea: 1950–1953 (Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym International, 1995), 136–9.
- 62.
Shinn, 147.
- 63.
Acheson to Muccio, 22 August 1950, FRUS 1950, 7, 630–1.
- 64.
Acheson to American Embassy Seoul, 8 November 1950, Box 4299, Decimal File 1950–1954, 795B.00/1-2350 to 795B.00/12-3150, RG59, NARA.
- 65.
Paul Colless, “U.N. Intervenes in S. Korean Atrocities,” Canberra Times, 18 December 1950.
- 66.
Peter Gifford, “Aspects of Australian Journalism and the Cold War, 1945–1956” (Unpublished Ph.D. Diss.: Murdoch University, 1997), 165.
- 67.
Barrett was the first reporter to ever describe the effects of a napalm strike on a village: George Barrett, “Radio Hams in U.S. Discuss Girls, So Shelling of Seoul Is Held Up,” New York Times, 9 February 1951.
- 68.
George Barrett, “Keeping Alive Is Main Concern Of Koreans Disillusioned by War,” New York Times, 21 February 1951.
- 69.
Eric Pace, “George Barrett of the Times, Cited for War Coverage, Dies,” New York Times, 22 November 1984.
- 70.
George Barrett, “Night Patrol In Italy,” Yank, 16 March 1945.
- 71.
George Barrett file, Box 4, New York Times Company Records. Foreign Desk Records, Manuscripts and Archives Division, NYPL.
- 72.
Gay Talese, The Kingdom and the Power (New York: Random House, 2007), 249.
- 73.
Prominent reporters who left during this period included Homer Bigart, Marguerite Higgins, Hal Boyle , Don Whitehead and Tom Lambert . January 1951 also saw the final departure of the New York Times’ veteran Korea correspondent Richard Johnston. While having Christmas dinner with the Rhees, a shaken and bitter Johnston told them that he had asked the newspaper for long-term leave and that he hoped to be on the plane delivering the first atom bomb: Francesca Rhee Diary Entry for 25 December 1950, Personal Papers of Syngman Rhee and Francesca Rhee, Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 74.
George Barrett file, Box 4, New York Times Company Records. Foreign Desk Records, Manuscripts and Archives Division, NYPL. A version of the report was still published by the Times: George Barrett, “Village Massacre Stirs South Korea,” New York Times, 11 April 1951.
- 75.
Knightley, The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Iraq, 389.
- 76.
Rhee to Oliver, 20 July 1950 quoted in Oliver, Syngman Rhee and American Involvement in Korea; 1942–1960, 301.
- 77.
Oliver to Rhee, 25 July 1950 quoted in Oliver, 302.
- 78.
In private, Rhee did not appear so magnanimous. Just before setting off for Seoul, he told UP President Hugh Baillie that he planned to remove all trace of the communists from South Korea: “I can handle the Communists. The Reds can bury their guns and burn their uniforms, but we know how to find them. With bulldozers we will dig huge excavations and trenches, and fill them with Communists. Then cover them over. And they will really be underground.” Baillie, a hawkish anti-communist and loyal supporter of Douglas MacArthur, later wrote that Rhee may have been a terrorist but he was “our terrorist”: Hugh Baillie, High Tension: The Recollections of Hugh Baillie (London: Laurie, 1960), 267–8.
- 79.
Walter Sullivan, “Australia Raises Rhee Issue in UN,” New York Times, 4 October 1950.
- 80.
Communist press outlets across the world published propagandistic accounts of South Korean and American atrocities in Korea, many authored by British Daily Worker correspondent Alan Winnington, who reported the war from the North Korean side. Although most governments and mainstream newspapers treated these stories with skepticism, they were given plausibility by an eyewitness account of mass executions in the London Times at the end of October and reports by James Cameron for The Picture Post, one of which was blocked from publication by the paper’s publisher as a result of its sensational content. The full text of Cameron’s article was published by the British Daily Worker on 1 November: “Seoul After Victory,” Times (London), 25 October 1950; James Cameron, “We Follow the Road to Hell,” Picture Post, 16 September 1950; “Picture Post Editor is sacked,” Daily Worker (UK), 1 November 1950. For more on British anxieties over the impact of these stories on public opinion, see Memorandum of Conversation, Assistant Sec of State (Rusk), 28 October 1950, FRUS 1950, 7, 1004–5.
- 81.
“Rhee’s Governors,” Washington Post, 19 October 1950.
- 82.
“Time for Harmony on the Future of North Korea,” Baltimore Sun, 23 October 1950.
- 83.
AP, “Execution of S. Koreans Draws Blast from Reporter,” Washington Post, 4 November 1950. Grutzner was criticized for failing to include basic background facts about the executions—such as what crimes they had been accused of and whether they had received trials prior to their executions: Charles Maines, Letter “Korean Executions,” Washington Post, 7 November 1950.
- 84.
“American Says Rhee Would Win Election,” New York Times, 10 October 1950.
- 85.
“What’s Ahead in Korea: A Telephone Interview with Syngman Rhee,” U.S. News and World Report, 27 October 1950. U.S. News and World Report’s publisher David Lawrence was also an influential conservative syndicated columnist and wrote about the campaign against Rhee in a column a few days after the interview: David Lawrence, “Attempts to Discredit Syngman Rhee Are Seen,” Spokane Daily Chronicle, 31 October 1950.
- 86.
“Father of his country?,” Time, 16 October 1950; Shea to Birmingham, 6 October 1950, Time Inc. Dispatches from Time magazine correspondents: First Series, 1942–1955, Houghton Library, Harvard College Library.
- 87.
Sulds to Fitch, 2 November 1950, Box 10, George and Geraldine Fitch Papers, Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University. General John Hodge, the former commander of the Korea occupation government, provided Fitch with some general background material on Meacham after the debate aired: Hodge to Fitch, 8 November 1950, Box 10, George and Geraldine Fitch Papers, Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University.
- 88.
Meacham to Wilson, 14 November 1950, Box 10, George and Geraldine Fitch Papers, Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University.
- 89.
Fitzgerald to Alsop, 17 October 1950, Box 5, Joseph and Stewart Alsop Papers, LOC. Fitzgerald was the father of Vietnam War correspondent and critic Frances Fitzgerald.
- 90.
Geraldine Fitch to Van Deusen, 14 November 1950, Box 10, George and Geraldine Fitch Papers, Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University.
- 91.
Harlan Trott, “Pentagon Hears Rumor UN Will Evacuate Korea,” Christian Science Monitor, 12 December 1950.
- 92.
George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1972), 961.
- 93.
The first allegations appeared in communist media outlets, and were then given more credence by the eyewitness reports of Peter Kalischer and other correspondents in South Korea: Peter Kalischer, “2 U.S. Priests Protest as S. Koreans Kill Prisoners by Hundreds”, Washington Post, 17 December 1950.
- 94.
Francesca Rhee Diary Entry for 12 December 1950, Personal Papers of Syngman Rhee and Francesca Rhee, Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 95.
AP, “Rhee Denies Execution of Korean Boy,” Baltimore Sun, 18 December 1950; AP, “Rhee Orders Executions in Seoul Speeded,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 19 December 1950.
- 96.
“Rhee Terms News of Killings Untrue,” New York Times, 19 December 1950.
- 97.
Muccio pointed out that exhumation of the bodies of the executed had proven “wholly false” accusations that children had been executed. He also noted that correspondents had misunderstood Rhee’s comment on speeding up trials and had mistakenly identified the national police as being involved in the execution: Muccio to Acheson, 20 December 1950, FRUS 1950, 7, 1579–81. An account of UNCURK’s role in the crisis can be found in UNCURK, Annual Report 1951 (New York, 1951), 21–2.
- 98.
UP, “Seoul Halts Execution Of Political Prisoners,” New York Times, 21 December 1950; Richard Johnston, “Seoul to Mitigate Prisoners’ Terms,” New York Times, 22 December 1950.
- 99.
Letter to Richmond, 19 April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 100.
Richmond to Mrs Rhee, 28 December 1950, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 101.
Oliver to Rhee, 19 April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 102.
Oliver to Rhee, 1 April 1950, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 103.
Mrs Oliver to Mrs Rhee, 28 April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson Center.
- 104.
Oliver to Rhee, 21 April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 105.
Hyungki J. Lew, Letter “Conditions in Korea,” New York Times, 7 April 1951.
- 106.
“Geissinger in Korea,” Buckeye Barrister, September 1951.
- 107.
Oliver to Rhee, 9 April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 108.
Richmond to Mrs Rhee, April 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 109.
Office of the Korean President to Charlotte Richmond, 17 May 1951, President Rhee Correspondence (Unofficial), Syngman Rhee Papers, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- 110.
Gibney, “The First Three Months of War: A Journalist’s Reminiscences of Korea,” 109.
- 111.
Cumings, “American Orientalism at War in Korea and the United States,” 49.
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Elliott, O. (2018). War 1950–1951. In: The American Press and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76023-0_5
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