Abstract
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research and programs related to Indigenous youth crime across four jurisdictions with significant Indigenous populations (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States). The chapter itself has been organized into several sections in order to more readily provide readers with a conceptual framework as well as identifiable gaps in the literature. After reviewing the jurisdictional and contextual information specific to each of the four countries, a conceptual framework is provided which identifies the various contributing factors to this issue and categorizes them according to whether they are systemic or individual. The chapter then reviews a number of system-based and targeted frontline programs that have been implemented in the four jurisdictions and provides commentary on their effectiveness and evidence-base. Finally, the chapter provides a review of the gaps in the literature, highlighting the need for additional research which is culturally responsive, gender-responsive, and inclusive of current trends in the field.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
For the purposes of this chapter, “Indigenous” refers to the original inhabitants of Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States .
- 2.
Although there are a variety of terms employed throughout the literature for describing the concept of criminal activity by young people (e.g., juvenile delinquency, teen crime, adolescent offending), the term “youth crime ” will be employed throughout the chapter.
- 3.
Although it is acknowledged that many other countries and jurisdictions also include Indigenous people as part of their community, the bulk of research and scientific investigation into Indigenous youth crime to date emanates from the four identified countries.
- 4.
In terms of Indigenous issues more broadly, the literature indicates a clear trend toward international analyses and comparisons between Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States (see e.g., Galaway & Hudson, 1996; Goran, 2001; Hudson, Morris, Maxwell, & Galaway, 1996; Winterdyk, 2015).
- 5.
Although there have been a limited number of publications examining specific issues related to Indigenous youth crime from an international perspective (see e.g., Hudson et al., 1996; Shoemaker, 1996), few if any have provided a more comprehensive overview of the issue across four countries with substantial Indigenous populations.
- 6.
The Inuit generally inhabit the far northern regions of the country, while the Innu, who were formerly known as the Naskapi-Montagnais, reside on the eastern portion of the Quebec-Labrador peninsula in eastern Canada , and the Métis are generally considered to be persons of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry and aretypically found in western Canada.
- 7.
Māori are the indigenous people of New Zealand. They are a diverse population affiliated with different Iwi (tribes/tribal group). Māori make up 14.9% of the NZ population (Statistics New Zealand, 2013).
- 8.
The New Zealand youth justice system separates out “children” aged 10–13 years and “youth” aged 14–16 years. The New Zealand government has recently agreed to include 17-year-olds in the YJS beginning in 2018.
- 9.
The term “Pacific” is commonly used in New Zealand to refer to people who self-affiliate with one or more of the Island nations in the Pacific: Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelu, Tuvalu and Tahiti (Suaalii-Sauni, Samu, Dunbar, Pulford, & Wheeler, 2012). Pacific peoples are a diverse population that make up 7.4% of the New Zealand population (Statistics New Zealand, 2013).
- 10.
In the United States the racial category “Native Americans” refers to American Indians and Alaskan Natives.
- 11.
In the 1830s, the U.S Supreme Court declared that the relationship between the U.S. government and Native Americans was that the latter were dependent, domestic nations. They possessed only a right of occupancy to land, not a right of ownership. The Indian Removal Act 1830 mandated that the tribes would exchange their land in the east for land west of the Mississippi and relocate there (Kidwell & Velie, 2005).
- 12.
Based on a decision by the Supreme Court of Canada on a ruling involving the Gladue case, an amendment was made to the Criminal Code [i.e., section 718.2(e)] allowing the courts to consider an alternative sentence that is culturally more sensitive and appropriate for Aboriginal offenders who are charged with less serious crimes.
- 13.
Cleland (2016) notes that for young Māori, this meant that they were to be seen in the context of whanau (family), hapu (sub-tribe) and iwi (tribe), and then responded to in a holistic way that took account of their physical and spiritual well-being. The links between families are critically important to the structure of Māori society and are the foundation from which a Māori worldview stems (Durie, 1994).
- 14.
Traditional meeting grounds of Māori communities.
- 15.
The Tribal Law and Policy Institute has developed a Tribal Juvenile Justice Code that is intended to assist tribes in developing laws that align with cultural practices and de-institutionalize status offenses (Coalition for Juvenile Justice, 2008/2009).
- 16.
Te Puni Kōkiri is a Department within the Ministry of Māori Development that leads Māori Public Policy initiatives and advises on policy affecting Māori well-being. They are the principal advisor on Government-Māori relationships , monitoring policy and legislation, and providing government with policy advice.
- 17.
Respect and status.
References
Adler, F., Mueller, G. O. W., Laufer, W. S., & Gerkul, J. (2009). Criminology (Canadian ed.). Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Allard, T., Rayment-McHugh, S., Adams, D., Smallbone, S., & McKillop, N. (2016). Responding to youth sexual offending: A field-based practice model that “closes the gap” on sexual recidivism among Indigenous and non-Indigenous males. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 22, 82–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2014.1003107
Amnesty International Australia. (2015). A brighter tomorrow: Keeping Indigenous kids in the community and out of detention in Australia. Broadway, New South Wales: Amnesty International Australia.
Andrae, D., McIntosh, T., & Coster, S. (2017). Marginalised: An insider’s view of the state, state policies in New Zealand and gang formation. Critical Criminology, 25, 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-016-9325-8
Armstrong, T. L., Guilfoyle, M. H., & Melton, A. P. (1996a). Traditional approaches to tribal justice. In M. O. Neilsen & R. A. Silverman (Eds.), Native Americans, crime and justice (pp. 46–51). Boulder: Westview Press.
Armstrong, T. L., Guilfoyle, M. H., & Melton, A. P. (1996b). Native American delinquency. In M. O. Neilsen & R. A. Silverman (Eds.), Native Americans, crime, and justice (pp. 75–88). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2012). Indigenous young people in the juvenile justice system: 2010-11. Bulletin 109 (Catalogue No. AUS164). Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2014). Youth detention population in Australia 2014. Juvenile justice series no. 16 (Catalogue No. JUV53). Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2016). Youth Justice in Australia: 2014–15. Bulletin no. 133 (Catalogue No. AUS198). Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC). (1997). Seen and heard: Priority for children in the legal process (ALRC Report 84). Retrieved from http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/18-childrens-involvement-criminal-justice-processes/age-thresholds-criminal-justice-pro
Banks, C. (2000). Developing cultural specificity for a cultural criminology. In C. Banks (Ed.), Developing cultural criminology: Theory and practice in Papua New Guinea (pp. 15–50). Sydney, Australia: Sydney Institute of Criminology.
Barrett, M. S., & Baker, J. S. (2012). Developing learning identities in and through music: A case study of the outcomes of a music programme in an Australian juvenile detention centre. International Journal of Music Education, 30(3), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761411433721
Becroft, A. (2006). Children and young people in conflict with the law: Asking the hard questions. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 57, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.2006.tb00129.x
Becroft, A. (2012). Access to youth justice in New Zealand: “The very good, the good, the bad and the ugly”. Auckland University Law Review, 18, 23–35.
Blagg, H. (1997). A just measure of shame? Aboriginal youth conferencing in Australia. British Journal of Criminology, 37, 481–501. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014193
Blagg, H. (2012). Re-imagining youth justice: Cultural contestation in the Kimberley region of Australia since the 1991 royal commission into Aboriginal deaths in custody. Theoretical Criminology, 16, 481–498. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480611436360
Blagg, H., Morgan, N., Cunneen, C., & Ferrante, A. (2005, September). Systemic racism as a factor in the overrepresentation of Aboriginal people in the Victorian criminal justice system. Human Rights Commission. Retrieved from http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/our-resources-and-publications/reports/item/1391-systemic-racism-as-a-factor-in-the-over-representation-of-aboriginal-people-in-the-victorian-criminal-justice-system-sep-2005
Blandford, J., & Sarre, R. (2009). Policing in South Australia’s remote and rural communities: Preliminary observations from a novel police diversionary strategy for young Indigenous offenders. Police Practice and Research, 10, 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614260802381075
Borowski, A. (2011). In Courtroom 7 - the Children’s Koori Court at work: Findings from an evaluation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 55, 1110–1134.
Bourke, C., & Cox, H. (1994). Two laws: One land. In C. Bourke, E. Bourke, & W. Edwards (Eds.), Aboriginal Australia (pp. 49–64). St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press.
Boyce, J. (2016). Victimization of aboriginal people in Canada, 2014. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.
Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquero, A. (2010). Criminal career progression among serious youthful offenders in Australia. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.001
Browne, E. (1988). The Australian family 1788-1888-1988. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 9, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1467-8438.1988.tb01283.x
Brzozowski, J. A., Taylor-Butts, A., & Johnson, S. (2006). Victimization and offending among the Aboriginal population in Canada. Juristat, 26(3). Catalogue no. 85-002-XIE.
Bull, S. (2004). ‘The land of murder, cannibalism, and all kinds of atrocious crimes?’ Māori and crime in New Zealand, 1853-1919. British Journal of Criminology, 44, 496–519. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh029
Bushway, S. (2010). Economy and crime. The Criminologist, 35, 1–5.
Caputo, T., & Kelly, K. (2015). Community level factors and concerns over youth gangs in first nation communities. Journal of Gang research, 22, 37–52.
Carney, T., & Myers, B. (2012). Effectiveness of early interventions for substance-using adolescents: Findings from a systematic review and meta-analysis. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 7, 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-7-25
Carrington, K., & Pereira, M. (2009). Offending youth: Sex, crime and justice. Sydney, New South Wales: The Federation Press.
Cameron, H., & Telfer, J. (2004). Cognitive-behavioural group work: Its application to specific offender groups. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2311.2004.00310.x
Chenhall, R., & Senior, K. (2009). Those young people are all crankybella: Indigenous youth mental health and globalization. International Journal of Mental Health, 38, 28–43. https://doi.org/10.2753/IMH0020-7411380302
Chettleburgh, M. C. (2008). Young thugs: Inside the dangerous world of Canadian street gangs. Toronto, ON: Harper Collins Pub.
Children’s Court of NSW. (2016). Youth Koori court. Retrieved from http://www.childrenscourt.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/Youth%20Koori%20Court%20A4_Accessible.pdf
Clark, S. (2016). Evaluation of the Aboriginal youth court, Toronto. Report prepared for the Ontario Court of Justice. Toronto, ON: Ontario Court of Justice.
Cleland, A. (2016). Portrait of the accused as a young man: New Zealand’s harsh treatment of young people who commit serious crimes. The Round Table, 105, 377–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2016.1205360
Cleland, A., & Quince, K. (2014). Youth justice in Aotearoa New Zealand: Law, policy and critique. Wellington, New Zealand: Lexis Nexis New Zealand.
Clough, A. R., Kim San Lee, K., & Conigrave, K. M. (2008). Promising performance of a juvenile justice diversion programme in remote Aboriginal communities, Northern Territory, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27, 433–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230802089693
Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (2008/2009). Biennial report. Washington, DC: Coalition for Juvenile Justice.
Cohen, M., Feyerherm, W., Spinny, E., Stephenson, R., & Yeide, M. (2013). Disproportionate minority contact in the U.S juvenile justice system: A review of the DMC literature 2001–2010. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Colenutt, A., & Toye, M. A. (2012). Critical crossroads: Youth, criminal justice and literacy. Calgary, AB: Bow Valley College.
Corrado, R. R., Kuehn, S., & Margaritescu, I. (2014). Policy issues regarding the over-representation of incarcerated Aboriginal young offender in a Canadian context. Youth Justice, 14, 40–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225413520361
Cull, D. M., & Wehner, D. M. (1998). Australian Aborigines: Cultural factors pertaining to the assessment and treatment of Australian Aboriginal sexual offenders. In W. L. Marshall, Y. M. Fernandez, S. M. Hudson, & T. Ward (Eds.), Sourcebook for treatment programs for sexual offenders (pp. 431–444). New York: Plenum Press.
Cunneen, C. (2006). Racism, discrimination and the over-representation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system: Some conceptual and explanatory issues. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 17, 329–346. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2298241
Cunneen, C. (2007). The criminalization of Indigenous people. In T. D. Gupta, C. E. James, R. C. A. Maaka, G. E. Galabuzi, & C. Andersen (Eds.), Race and racialization: Essential readings (pp. 266–274). Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Cunneen, C., & White, R. (2007). Juvenile justice: Youth and crime in Australia. Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press.
Dawes, G. (2002). Figure eights, spin outs and power slides: Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander youth and the culture of joyriding. Journal of Youth Studies, 5(2), 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260220134449
Dawes, G. D. (2011). The challenges of reintegrating Indigenous youth after their release from detention. Journal of Youth Studies, 14, 693–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2011.580338
Development Services Group. (2016). Tribal youth in the juvenile justice system: Literature review. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Dhillon, K. K. (2015). Indigenous girls and the violence of settler colonial policing. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 4(2), 1–31.
Doolan, I., Najman, J. M., Mills, R., Cherney, A., & Strathearn, L. (2013). Does child abuse and neglect explain the overrepresentation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people in youth detention? Findings from a birth cohort study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 303–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.12.005
Doolan, M. (2003). Restorative practices and family empowerment: Both/and or either/or? Family Rights Newsletter. London: Family Rights Group.
Dorgan, B. L., Shenandoah, J., Bigfoot, D. S., Broderick, E., Brown, E. F., Davidson, V., & Zimmerman, M. J. B. (2014). Attorney General’s advisory committee on American Indian and Alaska native children exposed to violence: Ending violence so children can thrive. Washington, DC: U.S Department of Justice.
Dumont, J. (1996). Justice and native peoples. In M. O. Nielsen, O. Marianne, & R. Silverman (Eds.), Native Americans, crime and justice (pp. 20–33). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Durie, M. H. (1994). Whaiora: Māori Health Development. Auckland: Oxford University Press.
Education Counts. (2017). School leavers with NCEA level 3 or above. Retrieved from https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/indicators/main/education-and-learning-outcomes/1891
Eitle, D., & McNulty-Eitle, T. (2016). General strain theory and delinquency: Extending a popular explanation to American Indian youth. Youth & Society, 48, 470–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X13499593
Faircloth, S. C., & Tippeconnic, J. W., III. (2010). The rropout/graduation rate crisis among American Indian and Alaska native students: Failure to respond places the future of native peoples at risk. Los Angeles, CA: The Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles at UCLA. www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu
Feldstein, S. W., Venner, K. L., & May, P. A. (2006). American Indian/Alaska Native alcohol-related incarceration and treatment. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 13, 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5820/aian.1303.2006.1
Fergusson, D., Swain-Campbell, N. R., & Horwood, L. J. (2003). Arrests and convictions for cannabis related offences in a New Zealand birth cohort. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 70, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00336-8
Frize, M., Kenny, D., & Lennings, C. (2008). The relationship between intellectual disability, Indigenous status and risk of reoffending in juvenile offenders on community orders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 52, 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2008.01058.x
Galaway, B., & Hudson, J. (1996). Restorative justice: International perspectives. Amsterdam: Kugler Publications.
Goldsmith, A., & Halsey, M. (2013). Cousins in crime: Mobility, place and belonging in Indigenous youth co-offending. British Journal of Criminology, 53, 1157–1177. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azt039
Goodwill, A., & Giannone, Z. (2017). From research to practice: Bridging the gaps for psychologists working in Indigenous communities affected by gangs. Canadian Psychology, 58, 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000091
Goran, S. (2001). Healing the victim, the young offender, and the community via restorative justice: An international perspective. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 22, 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840121244
Gover, A. R. (2005). Native American ethnicity and childhood maltreatment as variables in perceptions and adjustments to boot camp vs. “traditional” correctional settings. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 40, 177–198. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v40n03_09
Grant, C. M., & Feimer, S. (2007). Street gangs in Indian country: A clash of cultures. Journal of Gang Research, 14, 27–66.
Grant, P. (2009). The children’s Koori court in Victoria. Retrieved from https://www.childrenscourt.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/Prato_presentation_final.pdf
Green, R. (2016). Understanding the Youth Criminal Justice Act. In J. Winterdyk & R. Smandych (Eds.), Youth at risk and youth justice: A Canadian overview (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Greenberg, H., Grekul, J., & Nelson, R. (2016). Aboriginal youth in Canada. In J. Winterdyk & R. Smandych (Eds.), Youth at risk and youth justice: A Canadian overview (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Grekul, J., & Sanderson, K. (2011). ‘I thought peple would be mean and shout.’ Introducing the Hobbema Community Cadet Corps: A response to youth gang involvement? Journal of Youth Studies, 14, 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2010.489602
Grigorenko, E. (2012). Handbook of juvenile forensic psychology and psychiatry. New York, NY: Springer.
Hailer, J. A., & Hart, C. B. (1999). A new breed of warrior: The emergence of American Indian youth gangs. Journal of Gang Research, 7, 23–33.
Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence: It’s psychology and its relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion and education (v.2). New York: Appleton & Company.
Harris, A. (2015). Aboriginal corrections. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service Canada.
Hart-Mitchell, R., & Pfeifer, J. E. (2003). From jails to healing lodges: Evaluating the impact of correctional environments on offender adaptation. Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services, 1, 95–104.
Hartney, C. (2008). Native American youth and the juvenile justice system. Washington, DC: The National Council on Crime and Delinquency.
Higgins, D., & Davis, K. (2014). Law and justice: Prevention and early intervention programs for Indigenous youth. Resource sheet no. 34. Produced by the closing the gap clearinghouse. Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Holland, C. (2015). Close the gap: Progress and priorities report 2015. Canberra, ACT: Close the Gap Campaign Steering Committee.
Homel, R., Lincoln, R., & Herd, B. (1999). Risk and resilience: Crime and violence prevention in Aboriginal communities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 32, 182–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/000486589903200207
Hudson, J., Morris, A., Maxwell, G., & Galaway, B. (1996). Family group conferences: Perspectives on policy & practice. Annandale, New South Wales: Federation Press.
Hughes, N., Clasby, B., Chitsabesan, P., & Williams, H. (2016). A systematic review of the prevalence of foetal alcohol syndrome disorders among young people in the criminal justice system. Cogent Psychology, 3, 1214213.
Ioane, J., Lambie, I., & Percival, T. (2016). A comparison of Pacific, Maori, and European violent youth offenders in New Zealand. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparitive Criminology, 60, 657–674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X14560725
Jackson, M. (1988). The Māori and the criminal justice system: A new perspective: He whaipaanga hou. Part 2 (Government Report). Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Justice.
Johnson, S. (2014). Developing first nations courts in Canada: Elders as foundational to Indigenous therapeutic jurisprudence. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 3, 1–14.
Joseph, B. (2012). 8 key issues for Aboriginal people in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.ictinc.ca/blog/8-key-issues-for-aboriginal-people-in-canada
Joseph, J., & Taylor, D. (2003). Native-American youths and gangs. Journal of Gang Research, 10, 45–54.
Jones, R., & Day, A. (2011). Mental health, criminal justice and culture: Some ways forward? Australasian Psychiatry, 19(4), 325–330. https://doi.org/10.3109/10398562.2011.579613
Jweied, M. (2014). Expert working group report: Native American traditional justice Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved from https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/atj/legacy/2014/10/09/expert-working-group-report--native-american-traditional-justice-practices.pdf
Karmel, T., Misko, J., Blomberg, D., Bednarz, A., & Atkninson, G. (2014). Improving labour market outcomes through education and training. Issues paper no. 9. Produced for the closing the gap clearinghouse. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare & Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Kenny, D. T., & Lennings, C. J. (2007). Cultural group differences in social disadvantage, offence characteristics, and experience of childhood trauma and psychopathology in incarcerated juvenile offenders in NSW, Australia: Implications for service delivery. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 14, 294–305. https://doi.org/10.1375/pplt.14.2.294
Kidwell, C. S., & Velie, A. (2005). Native American studies. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
King, C. M., Heilbrun, K., Kim, N. Y., McWillimas, K., Phillips, S., Barbera, J., & Fretz, R. (2017). Tablet computers and forensic and psychological assessment: A randomized control study. Law and Human Behavior, 41, 468–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000245
Kirmayer, L. J., Brass, G. M., Paul, K., Simpson, C., & Tait, C. (2007). Suicide among Aboriginal people of Canada. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Healing Foundation.
Koch, J., & Scherer, J. (2016). Redd alert! (Re)articulating Aboriginal gang violence in Western Canada. Aboriginal Policy Studies, 6, 34–62.
La Prairie, C. (2002). Aboriginal over-representation in the criminal justice system: A tale of nine cities. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 44, 181–208.
Latimer, J., & Foss, L. C. (2005). The sentencing of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal youth under the young offenders act: A multivariate analysis. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 45, 481–500.
Latu, A., & Lucas, A. (2008). Discretion in the New Zealand criminal justice system: The position of Māori and Pacific Islanders. Journal of South Pacific Law, 12, 84–93.
Leiber, M. J., Johnson, J., & Fox, K. (2006). An examination of the factors that influence justice decision making in Anchorage and Fairbanks, Alaska: An assessment study. Alaska: Department of Health and Social Services, Division of Juvenile Justice.
LEVEL, Changing lives through law. (2017). Retrieved from https://leveljustice.org/en/youth-outreach
Livingston, M., Stewart, A., Allard, T., & Ogilvie, J. (2008). Understanding juvenile offending trajectories. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 41, 345–363. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.41.3.345
Ludbrook, R. (2009). New Zealand’s obligations under international law: What influence have they had on our youth justice system? In G. Maxwell (Ed.), Addressing the causes of offending: What is the evidence? Institute of Policy Studies: Wellington.
Lynch, M., Buckman, J., & Krenske, L. (2003). Youth justice: Criminal trajectories. Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology.
Lynch, N. (2012a). Youth justice in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Brookers.
Lynch, N. (2012b). Playing catch-up? Recent reform of New Zealand’s youth justice system. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 12, 507–526. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895811432013
Mahuteau, S., Karmel, T., Mavromaras, K., & Zhu, R. (2015). Educational outcomes of young indigenous Australians. Report submitted to the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE), Australia. National Institute of Labour Studies (NILS), Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Retrieved from https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Educational-Outcomes-of-Young-Indigenous-Australians-Report.pdf
Malekieh, J. (2017). Youth correctional statistics in Canada, 2015/1016. Juristat (Catalogue no. 85-002-x). Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.
Malvaso, C., Day, A., Casey, S., & Corrado, R. (2017). Young offenders, maltreatment, and trauma: A pilot study. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 24, 458–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1247682
Marchetti, E., & Daly, K. (2004). Indigenous courts and justice practices in Australia (no. 277). Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology.
Marenin, O. (1992). Explaining patterns of crime in the native villages of Alaska. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 34, 339–368.
Marie, D. (2010). Māori and criminal offending: A critical appraisal. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 43, 282–300. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.43.2.282
Martin, F. A. (2014). The coverage of American Indians and Alaskan natives in criminal justice and criminology introductory textbooks. Critical Criminology, 22, 237–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-013-9216-1
McKillop, D., & Pfeifer, J. E. (2004). Decision-making and young offenders: Examining the role of discretion in police judgments. Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services, 2, 209–214.
McLauren, K. (2000). Tough is not enough getting smart about youth crime: A review of research on what works to reduce offending by young people. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Youth Affairs.
McRae, H., Nettheim, G., & Beacroft, L. (1997). Indigenous legal issues: Commentary and materials. North Ryde, New South Wales: LBC Information Services.
Melander, L. A., Sittner-Hartshorn, K. J., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2013). Correlates of bullying behaviors among a sample of North American Indigenous adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.003
Memmott, P., Nash, D., & Pasi, C. (2015). Cultural relativism and Indigenous family violence. In A. Day & E. Fernandez (Eds.), Preventing violence in Australia: Policy, practice and solutions. Annandale, New South Wales: Federation Press.
Ministry of Justice. (2010). Child and youth offending statistics: An overview of child and youth offending statistics in New Zealand: 1992–2008. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Justice.
Ministry of Justice. (2013). Youth crime action plan: Full report. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Justice.
Ministry of Justice. (2015). Trends in child and youth prosecutions: Court statistics for 10–16 year olds in the year ended December 2015. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Justice.
Monchalin, L. (2016). The colonial problem: An Indigenous perspective on crime and injustice in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Moore, E., Gaskin, C., & Indig, D. (2015). Attempted suicide, self-harm, and psychological disorder among young offenders in custody. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 21, 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345815584849
Motivans, M., & Snyder, H. (2011). Summary: Tribal youth in the federal justice system. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice (Office of Justice Programs - Bureau of Justice Statistics).
Moyle, P., & Tauri, J. M. (2016). Māori, family group conferencing and the mystifications of restorative justice. Victims & Offenders, 11, 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2015.1135496
Munro-Harrison, E., Trounson, J. S., & Ironfield, N. (2016). A culturally safe education engagement model for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men in prison. Aboriginal & Islander Health Worker Journal, 40, 34–35.
Nathan, L. (2009a). What works to reduce offending by Rangatahi Māori. In G. Maxwell (Ed.), Addressing the causes of offending: What is the evidence? Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University.
Nathan, L. (2009b). What works to reduce offending by Rangatahi Māori. In G. Maxwell (Ed.), Impact on criminality: Māori youth perceptions. Youth Justice.
Neilsen, M. O. (1996). Contextualization for Native American crime and criminal justice involvement. In M. O. Nielsen & R. Silverman (Eds.), Native Americans, crime and justice (pp. 10–19). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Nielsen, M. O., & Robyn, L. (2003). Colonialism and criminal justice for Indigenous peoples in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States of America. Indigenous Nations Studies Journal, 4, 29–45.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2016). Tribal Youth in the Juvenile Justice System. Retrieved from https://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/litreviews/Tribal-youth-in-the-Juvenile-Justice-System.pdf
Ogloff, J. R. P., Pfeifer, J. E., Shepherd, S. M., & Ciorciari, J. (2017). Assessing the mental health, substance abuse, cognitive functioning, and social/emotional well-being needs of Aboriginal prisoners in Australia. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 23, 398–411.
Olver, M. E., Stockdale, K. C., & Wormith, J. S. (2009). Risk assessment with young offenders: A meta-analysis of three assessment measures. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 329–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809331457
Ottawa Department of Justice. (2015). Aboriginal courtwork program evaluation. Retrieved from http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cp-pm/eval/rep-rap/13/acp-paa/p3.html
Parker, K., & Myrstol, B. A. (2013). Juvenile justice referrals in Alaska 2003–2013. Anchorage: Justice Center, University of Alaska.
Pavkov, T. W., Travis, L., Fox, K. A., Bear-King, C., & Cross, T. L. (2010). Tribal youth victimization abnd delinquency: Analysis of youth risk behaviour surveillance survey data. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018664
Pennell, J., & Burford, G. (1996). Attending to context: Family group decision-making in Canada. In J. Hudson, A. Morris, G. Maxwell, & B. Galway (Eds.), Family group conferences: Perspectives on policies and practices (pp. 209–220). Annandale, New South Wales: Federated Press.
Perreault, S. (2014). Admissions to youth correctional services in Canada, 2011/2012. Juristat (Cat. No. 85-002-x). Statistics Canada.
Perry, B. (2006). Nobody trust them! Under- and over-policing Native American communities. Critical Criminology, 14, 411–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-006-9007-z
Perry, B. (2009). Policing race and place in Indian country. Lanham: Lexington Books.
Perry, S. W. (2004). American Indians and Crime. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice (Office of Justice Programs—Bureau of Justice Statistics).
Peters, A. M. F., & Corrado, R. R. (2016). The youth justice system in action. In J. Winterdyk & R. Smandych (Eds.), Youth at risk and youth justice: A Canadian overview (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Pew Research Center. (2012). One-in-four Native Americans and Alaska natives are living in poverty. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/06/13/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty/
Pfeifer, J. E. (2017). Police recruitment and Indigenous people: Examining the role of attitudes, perceptions and beliefs. Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues, 20, 31–47.
Pfeifer, J. E. (in review). Indigenous culture, corrections and technology: Assessing the effectiveness of the iTalk program in Northern Territory Corrections.
Poa, D., & Monod, S. W. (2016). A re-education initiative and its impact on reoffending among indigenous New Zealand youth. Journal of Applied Youth Studies, 3, 55–67.
Quince, K. (2007a). Māori and the criminal justice system in New Zealand. In J. Tolmie & W. Brookbanks (Eds.), The New Zealand Justice System (pp. 333–358). Auckland, New Zealand: Lexis Nexis.
Quince, K. (2007b). Maori and the criminal justice system in New Zealand. Criminal Justice in New Zealand. Auckland, New Zealand: Lexis Nexis.
Redding, R. E. (2010). The impact of prosecuting youth in the adult criminal justice system: A review of the literature. Los Angeles: University of California School of Law.
Restorative Justice Unit, & File Hills Qu’Appelle Tribal Council. (2010). First nations community justice handbook. Saskatchewan: Restorative Justice Unit, File Hills Qu’Appelle Tribal Council.
Rodriguez, N. (2008). A multilevel analysis of juvenile court processes: The importance of community characteristics. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Rojas, E. Y., & Gretton, H. M. (2007). Background, offence characteristics, and criminal outcomes of Aboriginal youth who sexually offend: A closer look at Aboriginal youth intervention needs. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19, 257–283.
Sahin, Q., & Maier, J. (2011). Delinquency: Causes, reduction and prevention. New York: Nova Science.
Sampson, R. J. (2009). Disparity and diversity in the contemporary city: Social (dis)order revisitied. British Journal of Sociology, 60, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2009.01211.x
Samra-Grewa, J., Pfeifer, J. E., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2000). Recommendations for conditional release suitability: Cognitive biases and consistency in case management officers’ decision-making. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 42, 421–447.
Senate Select Committee on Regional and Remote Indigenous Communities. (2010). Indigenous Australians, incarceration and the criminal justice system (Discussion paper). Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved from http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Former_Committees/indig/index
Senior, K., Chenhall, R., & Daniels, D. (2006). “Stuck nose”: Experiences and understanding of petrol sniffing in a remote Aboriginal community. Contemporary Drug Problems, 33, 451–472.
Shaffer, C., McCuish, E., Corrado, R. R., Behnken, M. P., & DeLisi, M. (2015). Psychopathy and violent misconduct in a sample of violent young offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 43, 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.05.008
Shepherd, S. M., Luebbers, S., Ferguson, M., Ogloff, J. R. P., & Dolan, M. (2014). The utility of the SAVRY across ethnicity in Australian young offenders. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033972
Shepherd, S. M., Ogloff, J. R. P., Pfeifer, J. E., & Paradies, Y. (2017). Indigenous prisoners with cognitive impairment - is this the highest risk group. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
Shepherd, S. M., Ogloff, J. R. P., Shea, D., Pfeifer, J. E., & Paradies, Y. (2017). Aboriginal prisoners and cognitive impairment: The impact of dual disadvantage on social and emotional wellbeing. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 61, 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12357
Sherwood, J. (2013). Colonisation – It’s bad for your health: The context of Aboriginal health. Contemporary Nurse, 46, 28–40. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2013.46.1.28
Shoemaker, D. (1996). International handbook on juvenile justice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Shoham, S. G., Beck, O., & Kett, M. (2008). Penology and criminal justice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Sickmund, M., & Puzzanchera, C. (2014). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2014 national report. Pittsburgh: National Center for Juvenile Justice. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/nr2014/downloads/NR2014.pdf
Silva, D., Colvin, L., Glauert, R., & Bower, C. (2014). Contact with juvenile justice system in children treated with stimulant medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A population study. The Lancet: Psychiatry, 1, 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70302-5
Silverstein, M. (2005). What’s race got to do with justice? Responsibilization strategies at parole hearings. British Journal of Criminology, 45, 340–354. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh102
Singh, D., & White, C. (2000). Searching for solutions: A review of research about effective interventions for reducing offending by indigenous and ethnic minority youth. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Youth Affairs.
Sittner-Hartshorn, K. J., Whitbeck, L. B., & Prentice, R. (2015). Substance use disorders, comorbidity, and arrest among Indigenous adolescents. Crime & Delinquency, 61, 1311–1332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128712466372
Skues, J., Pfeifer, J. E., Oliva, A., & Wise, L. (in press). Responding to the needs of prisoners with learning difficulties in Australia. Journal of Bias, Identity, and Diversities in Education.
Snow, P. C., Woodward, M., Mathis, M., & Powell, M. B. (2016). Language functioning, mental health and alexithymia in incarcerated young offenders. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 20–31. https://doi.org/10.3109/17549507.2015.1081291
Snowball, L. (2008). Juvenile diversion and Indigenous offenders. Criminology Research Council. Retrieved from http://criminologyresearchcouncil.gov.au/reports/200607-C02.pdf
Spiranovic, C., Clare, J., Clare, M., & Clare, B. (2013). Youth justice and child protection: The Children’s Court in Western Australia. In R. Sheehan & A. Borowski (Eds.), Australia’s children’s courts today and tomorrow (pp. 143–162). Dordrecht: Springer.
Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs. (2011). Doing time - time for doing: Indigenous youth in the criminal justice system. Canberra, ACT: Parliament of Australia.
Stathis, S., Letters, P., Doolan, I., Fleming, R., Heath, K., Arnett, A., & Cory, S. (2008). Use of the Massachusetts youth screening instrument to assess mental health problems in young people within an Australian youth detention centre. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 44, 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2008.01324.x
Statistics Canada. (2015). Aboriginal statistics at a glance. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-645-x/2010001/income-revenu-eng.htm
Statistics New Zealand. (2013). Population Census. Retrieved from http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census.aspx
Statistics New Zealand. (2016). Apprehension statistics: Calendar year 2014. Retrieved from http://www.stats.govt.nz/tools_and_services/nzdotstat/tables-by-subject/new-zealand-recorded-crime-tables/apprehensions.aspx
Stewart, L. (1997). Approaches to preventing alcohol-related problems: The experience of New Zealand and Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 16, 391–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595239700186791
Stewart, A., Hayes, H., Livingston, M., & Palk, G. (2008). Youth justice conferencing and indigenous over-representation in the Queensland juvenile justice system: A micro-simulation case study. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 4(4), 357–380.
Suaalii-Sauni, T., Samu, K., Dunbar, L., Pulford, J., & Wheeler, A. (2012). A qualitative investigation into key cultural factors that support abstinence or responsible drinking amongst some Pacific youth living in New Zealand. Harm Reduction Journal, 9, 36–48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-9-36
Taumaunu, H. (2014). Māori Law review. Retrieved from http://Māori lawreview.co.nz/2014/11/rangatahi-courts-of-aotearoa-new-zealand-an-update/
Tauri, J. (1999). Explaining recent innovations in New Zealand’s criminal justice system: Empowering Māori of biculturalising the state? The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 32, 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/000486589903200205
Tauri, J. (2005). Indigenous perspectives and experiences: Māori and the criminal justice system. In T. Bradley & R. Walters (Eds.), Introduction to criminological thought (pp. 129–145). Auckland: Pearson.
Tauri, J. (2012). Indigenous critique of authoritarian criminology. In K. Carrington, M. Ball, E. O’Brien, & J. Tauri (Eds.), Crime justice and social democracy (pp. 217–233). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tauri, J. M., & Webb, R. (2012). A critical appraisal of responses to Māori offending. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 3(4), 1–16.
Te Puni Kōkiri. (2011a). Addressing the drivers of crime for Māori. Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri.
Te Puni Kōkiri. (2011b). He Pūrongo Arotake: Hard to reach youth (CART) evaluation report: Hard to Reach Youth (CART). Wellington, New Zealand: Te Puni Kōkiri.
Thompson, A. P., & McGrath, A. (2012). Subgroup differences and implications for contemporary risk-need assessment with juvenile offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 36, 345–355.
Thompson, A. P., & Pope, Z. (2005). Assessing juvenile offenders: Preliminary data for the Australian adaptation of the youth level of services/case management inventory (Hoge & Andrews, 1995). Australian Psychologist, 40, 207–214.
Thomson, S., De Bortoli, L., & Buckley, S. (2013). PISA in brief highlights from the full Australian report: PISA 2012 - how Australia measures up. Australian Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=ozpisa
Toki, V. (2014). Indigenous children and youth: The case of marae courts in Aotearoa New Zealand. In W. Littlechild & E. Stamatopoulou (Eds.), Indigenous people’s access to justice, including truth and reconciliation processes (pp. 243–254). New York, NY: Institute for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University.
Totten, M. (2012). Nasty, brutish, and short: The lives of gang members in Canada. Toronto, ON: Lorimer Pub.
Totten, M. (2014). Gang life: 10 of the toughest tell their stories. Toronto, ON: Lorimer.
Totten, M. (2016). An overview of gang-involved youth in Canada. In J. Winterydk & R. Smandych (Eds.), Youth at risk and youth justice: A Canadian overview. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Troth, G., & Grainger, J. (2000). The psychological impact of custody on the Aboriginal adolescent. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 7, 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710009524974
Trotter, C., Baidawi, S., & Evans, P. (2015). Good practice in community-based supervision of Aboriginal youth offenders. Australian Social Work, 68(1), 5–18.
United States Census. (2010). Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/2010census/
Watt, E. (2003). A history of youth justice in New Zealand 1-32. Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved from https://www.youthcourt.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Publications/Youth-Court-History-of-the-Youth-Court.pdf
Weatherburn, D., Fitzgerald, J., & Hua, J. (2003). Reducing Aboriginal overrepresentation in prison. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 62(3), 65–73.
Webb, R. (2009). Maori, Pacific peoples and the social construction of crime statistics. Mai Review, 3, 1–4.
Westcott, M. (2006). Murri courts – Research brief 2006/14. Queensland Parliament. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/explore/ResearchPublications/ResearchBriefs/2006/RBR200614.pdf
Willoughby, A., & Nellis, M. (2016). “You cannot really hide”: Experiences of probation officers and young offenders with GPS tracking in Winnipeg, Canada. Journal of Technology in Human Service, 34, 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228835.2016.1139919
Winterdyk, J. (Ed.). (2015). Juvenile justice: International perspectives, models and trends. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Workman, K. (2011). Māori over-representation in the criminal justice system: Does discrimination have anything to do with it? Wellington, New Zealand: Rethinking Crime and Punishment.
Workman, K. (2016). From a search for Rangatiratanga to a struggle for survival – Criminal justice, the state and Māori, 1985 to 2015. The 2015 JD Stout Lecture. Journal of New Zealand Studies, 22, 89–104.
Workman, K., & McIntosh, T. (2013). Crime, imprisonment and poverty. In M. Rashbrooke (Ed.), Inequality: A New Zealand crisis (pp. 120–131). Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams Books.
Yessine, A. K., & Bonta, J. (2009). The offending trajectories of youthful Aboriginal offenders. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 51, 435–472. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.51.4.435
Youth Justice Independent Advisory Group (IAG). (2009). Practical ideas for addressing Māori youth offending (Response to request by senior government ministers), 1-10.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Teagan Connop-Galer for her assistance with the preparation of this chapter.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pfeifer, J.E., Winterdyk, J., Hutton, F., Monod de Froideville, S., Banks, C., Trounson, J.S. (2018). Indigenous Youth Crime: An International Perspective. In: Miller, M., Bornstein, B. (eds) Advances in Psychology and Law. Advances in Psychology and Law, vol 3. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75859-6_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75859-6_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-75858-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-75859-6
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)