Literature Review

Geri, Maurizio

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75574-8_2

Maurizio Geri⁴

Part of the book series: Minorities in West Asia and North Africa ((MWANA))

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Abstract

This chapter presents the theoretical aspects of the book, with an analysis of the literature on the various topics. The first section concerns the inclusion versus exclusion of minorities in democracies and in democratization processes and the strategies of inclusion of these minorities. Then comes a discussion of the two main outcomes analyzed in the book: securitization (Buzan et. al. Security: A new framework for analysis, 1998) and autonomization (a new concept, drawing from Lijphart, J Democr 15(2): 96–109, 2004 and Kymlicka 2001). Finally, the chapter surveys the scholarship on the factors taken into account to explain the different outcomes, which are the independent variables based on four theoretical schools: the elite power struggle based on rationalist theory, external factors based on structuralist theory, history and institutions of the state based on historical institutionalist theory, and, finally, the ontological security of the country based on critical theory.

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Notes

1.
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Saunders and Otley, 1835).
2.
Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy. Participation and opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
3.
Michel Rosenfeld, Andrew Arato (ed.), Habermas on law and democracy: Critical exchanges (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
4.
The Community of Democracies is an international organization, established in 2000 to bring together governments, civil society, and the private sector in the pursuit of a common goal: supporting democratic rule and strengthening democratic norms and institutions around the world. Participating states pledge to uphold the democratic values expressed in the core principles of the Warsaw Declaration, including “The right of persons belonging to minorities or disadvantaged groups to equal protection of the law, and the freedom to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, and use their own language.” From: “The Warsaw Declaration,” Community of Democracies, accessed on September 30, 2017. https://www.community-democracies.org/Visioning-Democracy/To-be-a-Democracy-The-Warsaw-Declaration.
5.
Robert A. Dahl, “What political institutions does large-scale democracy require?” Political Science Quarterly, 120, 2 (Summer, 2005): 187–197.
6.
Charles Tilly, Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
7.
Tilly, Democracy, p. 7.
8.
Ibid., p. 78.
9.
Larry Diamond, Developing democracy: Toward consolidation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999). Also: What is democracy? Lecture at Hilla University for Humanistic Studies, January 21, 2004. https://web.stanford.edu/~ldiamond/iraq/WhaIsDemocracy012004.htm.
10.
Larry Diamond and Leonardo Morlino, eds., Assessing the quality of democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).
11.
Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty (London: Profile books, 2013).
12.
Edward D. Mansfield and Jack L. Snyder, Electing to fight: Why emerging democracies go to war (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005).
13.
Sylvia Walby, Globalization and inequalities: Complexity and contested modernities (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2009).
14.
Fareed Zakaria, The future of freedom: Illiberal democracy at home and abroad (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2003).
15.
Iris Marion Young, Inclusion and democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
16.
Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and socialist strategy: Towards a radical democratic politics (London: Verso, 1985).
17.
For more broad definitions of democracy (not only minimalist definition of electoral democracy) see also Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, Democracy: A reader (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2009).
18.
Edward D. Mansfield and Jack L. Snyder, Electing to fight: Why emerging democracies go to war (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005).
19.
Jacques Bertrand and Oded Haklai (eds.), Democratization and ethnic minorities: Conflict or compromise? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
20.
Ibid., p. 1.
21.
Ibid., p. 3.
22.
Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 60.
23.
Richard Youngs, The puzzle of non-Western democracy (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2015).
24.
Francis Fukuyama, The end of history and the last man (New York: Free Press, 1992).
25.
See on this also Christopher K. Lamont, Jan van der Harst, and Frank Gaenssmantel (eds.), Non-Western encounters with democratization (Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2015).
26.
See on this, among many, Diego Von Vacano, “Is democracy a Western idea?” Washington Post, January 8, 2014, accessed September 30, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/01/08/is-democracy-a-western-idea.
27.
Arend Lijphart, The politics of accommodation: Pluralism and democracy in the Netherlands (Berkeley: University of California Press 1968).
28.
Arend Lijphart, Democracy in plural societies: A comparative exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), and Arend Lijphart, Patterns of democracy: government forms and performance in 36 countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).
29.
Lijphart, 1999, pp. 185–200.
30.
Donald L. Horowitz, “Democracy in divided societies,” Journal of Democracy, 4, 4 (October 1993): 18–38.
31.
Andrew Reynolds, Designing democracy in a dangerous world (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).
32.
John S. Dryzek, “Political inclusion and the dynamics of democratization,” American Political Science Review, 90, 3 (September 1996): 475–487.
33.
John S. Dryzek, “Deliberative democracy in divided societies: Alternatives to agonism and analgesia,” Political Theory, 33, 2 (April 2005): 218–242.
34.
Ben Reilly, Democracy in divided societies: Electoral engineering for conflict management (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
35.
John McGarry and Brendan O’Leary, The politics of ethnic conflict regulation: Case studies of protracted ethnic conflicts (New York: Routledge, 1993).
36.
Ibid., p. 23.
37.
Barry Buzan and Lene Hansen, The evolution of international security studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009): 187.
38.
Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, Jaap de Wilde, Security: A new framework for analysis (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998).
39.
Ole Wæver, “Securitization and desecuritization,” in On security, ed. R. Lipschutz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995): 54–55.
40.
Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, Jaap de Wilde, Security: A new framework for analysis (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998): 36
41.
Ibid., 36.
42.
Ibid., 40.
43.
Ralf Emmers, “Securitization,” in Contemporary security studies, ed. Allan Collins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007): 111–113.
44.
The speech act is when the securitizing actor declares the referent object as existentially threatened. See Buzan et al., 40.
45.
Will Kymlicka, “Justice and security in the accommodation of minority nationalism,” in The politics of belonging: Nationalism, liberalism, and pluralism, ed. Alain Dieckhoff (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2004).
46.
Will Kymlicka, Politics in the vernacular: Nationalism, multiculturalism, and citizenship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002): 21.
47.
The term Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) has today displaced the alternative term East Central Europe (ECE) in the context of transition countries.
48.
Ibid., p. 131.
49.
Ibid., p. 138.
50.
Ole Wæver, “Securitization and desecuritization,” in On security, ed. Ronny Lipschutz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995): 46–86.
51.
Bülent Aras and Rabia Karakaya Polat, “From conflict to cooperation: Desecuritization of Turkey’s relations with Syria and Iran,” Security Dialogue 39(5) (2008): 495–515.
52.
Ibid., p. 499.
53.
Fikret Birdisli, “Securitization of Kurdish question in Turkey,” International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 2 (June 2014): 1.
54.
Ibid., 9–10.
55.
Ayşe Kadıoğlu, “Necessity and the state of exception: The Turkish state’s permanent war with its Kurdish citizens,” in Turkey between nationalism and globalization, ed. Riva Kastoryano (London and New York: Routledge, 2013).
56.
Giorgio Agamben, State of exception (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). Agamben argues that the state of exception (Carl Schmitt’s concept regarding the ability of a state to transcend the rule of law in the name of the public good) became in the twentieth century a normal phase of democratic governments instead of their “exception.”
57.
The OHAL region (in Turkish: Olağanüstü Hâl Bölge Valiliği, English: Governorship of Region in State of Emergency) was a region in Kurdistan created by the Turkish state in 1987, after the state of emergency legislation was passed to deal with the Turkish–Kurdish conflict, until 2002.
58.
Kadıoğlu, Necessity and the state of exception, 150–151.
59.
Ibid., 153.
60.
Ibid., 156.
61.
Dilek Kurban, “The Kurdish question: Law, politics and the limits of recognition,” in, Turkey’s democratization process, eds. C. Rodriguez, A. Avalos, H. Yilmaz, and A. Planet (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014), 346.
62.
See on this Derya Erdem, “The representation of the Democratic Society Party (DTP) in the mainstream Turkish media,” in C. Gunes and W. Zeydanlioglu, eds., The Kurdish question in Turkey: New perspectives on violence, representation and reconciliation (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
63.
John McGarry and Brendan O’Leary, The politics of ethnic conflict regulation: Case studies of protracted ethnic conflicts (New York: Routledge, 1993).
64.
Robert A. Dahl, Dilemmas of pluralist democracy: Autonomy vs. control (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).
65.
Ibid., p. 41.
66.
Larry Diamond, “Why decentralize power in a democracy?,” Conference on Fiscal and Administrative Decentralization, 2/12/2004, accessed September 30, 2017. https://web.stanford.edu/~ldiamond/iraq/Decentralize_Power021204.htm.
67.
Warren Strobel, Missy Ryan, David Rohde, and Ned Parker, Special report: How Iraq’s Maliki defined limits of U.S. power, Reuters, 6/30/2014, accessed September 30, 2017. http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/30/us-iraq-security-maliki-specialreport-idUSKBN0F51HK20140630.
68.
Will Kymlicka and W. J. Norman, Citizenship in diverse societies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
69.
Will Kymlicka, Politics in the vernacular: Nationalism, multiculturalism, and citizenship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
70.
Amy Gutmann, Identity in democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).
71.
David L. Miller, Citizenship and national identity (Cambridge: Polity, 2000).
72.
Koert Debeuf, “Tribalisation, or the end of globalization,” EU Observer, December 8, 2015, accessed September 30, 2017. https://euobserver.com/opinion/131413.
73.
Arend Lijphart, The politics of accommodation; pluralism and democracy in the Netherlands (Berkeley: University of California Press 1968).
74.
Arend Lijphart, “Constitutional design for divided societies,” Journal of Democracy, Volume 15, Number 2 April 2004.
75.
Aisling Lyon, Decentralization and the management of ethnic conflict: lessons from the Republic of Macedonia (New York: Routledge, 2015).
76.
James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Violence and the social construction of ethnic identity,” International Organization, Volume 54, Issue 04 (Autumn 2000): 845–877.
77.
Paul R Brass, Ethnicity and nationalism: Theory and comparison (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 1991).
78.
Anthony W. Marx, “The nation-state and its exclusions,” Political Science Quarterly 117, No. 1 (2002): 103–126.
79.
Anthony Gill, “The political origins of religious liberty,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 1 (2005).
80.
V. P. Gagnon, Jr., The myth of ethnic war: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).
81.
Stuart J. Kaufman, Modern hatreds: The symbolic politics of ethnic war (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001).
82.
Roger Dale Petersen, Western intervention in the Balkans: The strategic use of emotion in conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
83.
Stathis N. Kalyvas, “Wanton and senseless? The logic of massacres in Algeria,” Rationality and Society, 11, No. 3 (1999): 243–286.
84.
Jack Snyder, From voting to violence: Democratization and nationalist conflict (New York: Norton, 2000).
85.
Donald Rotchild, “Liberalism, democracy and conflict management,” in A. Wimmer et al (eds.), Facing ethnic conflicts: Toward a new realism (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004).
86.
Crawford Young, “The heart of the African conflict zone: Democratization, ethnicity, civil conflict and the Great Lakes,” Annual Review of Political Science, 9 (2006): 302–328.
87.
Jacquest Bertrand and Sanjay Jeram, “Democratization and determinants of ethnic violence: The rebel-moderate organization nexus,” Ch. 6 in Jacques Bertrand and Oded Haklai (eds.), Democratization and ethnic minorities: Conflict or compromise? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
88.
Andre Laliberte, “Democratization and recognition of difference in a Chinese society: The Taiwanese experience,” Ch. 7 in Jacques Bertrand and Oded Haklai (eds.), Democratization and ethnic minorities: Conflict or compromise? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
89.
Brian Shoup, “Ethnically based redistributive policies in democratizing bipolar states,” Ch. 8 in Jacques Bertrand and Oded Haklai (eds.) Democratization and ethnic minorities: Conflict or compromise? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
90.
Halford John Mackinder, Democratic ideals and reality: A study in the politics of reconstruction (New York: H. Holt and Company, 1919).
91.
Actually, Mackinder can also be considered a supporter of decentralization ante litteram, as he argued that modern human societies should return to more human-scale provinces and cities, like the ancient Greek city-states or Renaissance communes, so that national organization of the state can be based on decentralized and autonomous communities. See Mackinder 1919, Ch. 7, “The freedom of men.”
92.
Myron Weiner, “The Macedonian syndrome: An historical model of international relations and political development,” New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics, 2 (2001); originally published in World Politics (Vol. 23, No. 4, July 1971, pp. 665–683).
93.
Harris Mylonas, The politics of nation-building: Making co-nationals, refugees, and minorities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
94.
L.-E. Cederman, L. Girardin, and K. S. Gleditsch, “Ethno-nationalist triads: Assessing the influence of kin groups on civil wars,” World Politics 61: 403–437 (2009).
95.
Will Kymlicka, Multicultural odysseys: Navigating the new international politics of diversity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
96.
For example: UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992), Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1992), Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995), UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001), UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007).
97.
James N. Rosenau, Distant proximities: Dynamics beyond globalization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).
98.
Étienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein, Race, nation, class: Ambiguous identities (London, New York: Verso, 1991).
99.
The path dependency theory, inside the theory of Historical Institutionalism, asserts that decisions one faces are limited by the decisions in the past, even though past circumstances may no longer be relevant. See T. Skocpol, P. Pierson, “Historical institutionalism in contemporary political science,” in I. Katznelson, H. V. Milner (eds.) Political science: State of the discipline (New York: W.W. Norton, 2002).
100.
Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).
101.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London, New York: Verso, 1983).
102.
Ibid., 6–7.
103.
Ibid., pp. 6–7.
104.
Tomas Hammar, Democracy and the nation-state: Aliens, denizens, and citizenship in a world of international migration (Aldershot, UK: Avebury, 1990).
105.
Stuurman, Citizenship and cultural differences in France and the Netherlands, 2004.
106.
Prak, 1997.
107.
David C. Earnest, Old nations, new voters: Nationalism, transnationalism, and democracy in the era of global migration (Albany: SUNY Press, 2008).
108.
Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty (London: Profile Books, 2013) p. 44.
109.
Anthony Giddens, Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).
110.
Jennifer Mitzen, “Ontological security in World politics: State identity and the security dilemma,” European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 12, No. 3 (2006). Brent J. Steele, Ontological security in international relations: Self-identity and the IR state (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008).
111.
Bahar Rumelili, Conflict resolution and ontological security: Peace anxieties (New York: Routledge, 2015).
112.
Myron Weiner, “The Macedonian syndrome: An historical model of international relations and political development,” New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics, 2, 2001; originally published in World Politics (1971).
113.
Kymlicka, 2002, p. 19.

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ACT-NATO, Norfolk, VA, USA
Maurizio Geri

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Geri, M. (2018). Literature Review. In: Ethnic Minorities in Democratizing Muslim Countries. Minorities in West Asia and North Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75574-8_2

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75574-8_2
Published: 28 April 2018
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-75573-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-75574-8
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