Abstract
Within the art historical canon, Gustave Courbet is presented as the quintessential autonomous artist. He is seen as part of the seminal modern movement “away” from the courtly in art and towards artistic freedom and critical distance. Reading his work within the discourse of Critical Legal Studies, and in particular psychoanalytical theory, it is clear that an artist is never wholly free of the legal structures that define them. What is the import of that repositioning? In a close reading of Courbet’s major work, The Studio, this chapter makes two claims. First that Courbet is actually partisan, imaging very strongly and clearly his Republican values. His work is situated within the language of sovereignty, not outside of it, and represents duelling claims to sovereignty. Second, that in the self portrait, far from positioning the artist at the centre of the world, which is the canonical reading, the work can instead be seen as an attempt to image the position of the legal subject in relation to the law. It is a work that illustrates the process of legal subject formation.
Carla Bruni: The New Jackie O? How France (and Its President) Fell for Its Enchanting First Lady: Liberté, Égalité, Nudité.
Vanity Fair, September, 2008, (cover page caption).
My love life is terrible. The last time I was inside a woman was when I visited the Statue of Liberty.
Woody Allen, Crimes and Misdemeanours, Metro Goldwyn Meyer, 1989.
It will be a long time before we agree on the true sense of the word “democracy”!
Gustave Courbet, letter to the Government of National Defence, Paris [5 October 1870] found in ten-Doesschate Chu, Petra. 1992. Letters of Gustave Courbet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 392.
[They] call me “the socialist painter.” I accept that title with pleasure. I am not only a socialist but a democrat and a Republican as well – in a word, a partisan of all the revolution and above all a Realist … for “Realist” means a sincere lover of the honest truth.
Quoted in Petra ten-Doesschate Chu, 1992. 97.
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Notes
- 1.
Toussaint, Hélène. 1977. Gustave Courbet [1819-1877] [exhibition catalogue]. Paris/London: Grand Palais/Royal Academy of Arts.
- 2.
Herding, Klaus. 1991. Courbet: To Venture Independence. New Haven: Yale: University Press.
- 3.
Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate. 2008. The Most Arrogant Man in France: Gustave Courbet and the Nineteenth Century Media Culture. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press.; his views are consistently political and leftist, the fact that he joined the Commune at such a high administrative level is characteristic of his general political disposition.
- 4.
See Mainardi, Patricia. 1990. Art and Politics of the Second Empire: The Universal Expositions of 1855 and 1867. London and New Haven: Yale University Press.
- 5.
Boime, Albert. 2008. Art in an Age of Civil Struggle, 1848-1871. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 683–684; Boime even suggests this insinuated to French society that Napoleon III was sleeping with the ladies in waiting.
- 6.
In a particularly interesting reading Patricia Mainardi sees the commercial autonomy of the “solo exhibition” as another blind spot in traditional art theory. Mainardi, Patricia. 1991 (December). Courbet’s Exhibitionism. Gazette des Beaux-Arts 118:253–266.
- 7.
Nochlin, Linda. 1972. Realism (Style and Civilizations). London: Penguin. and Nochlin, Linda. 1966. Realism and Tradition in Art, 1848-1900. New Jersey: Prentice Hall College Division.; Reff, Theodore. 1981. Exhibitions of Later Realist Art. New York: Garland.; Rubin, James H. 1981. Realism and Social Vision in Courbet and Proudhon. Princeton Essays on the Arts. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Courbet was such a promethean artist that Picasso had a pair of green striped pants made to match those of Courbet’s in The Studio. Linda Nochlin reports this fact but cannot place where she heard it. Nochlin, Linda. 1988. Courbet’s Real Allegory: Reading The Painter’s Studio. In Courbet Reconsidered, eds. Sarah Faunce, and Linda Nochlin. Yale: Yale University Press. A suggestion may be in Picasso’s own poetry where he writes of “Goya” wearing a “pair of striped pants like Courbet and me”, in Picasso, Pablo. 2004. The burial of the Count of Orgaz & Other Poems. Trans. Jerome Rothenberg, and Pierre Joris. Boston: Exact Change, 292.
- 8.
- 9.
Nochlin, Linda 1967. The Invention of the Avant-Garde: France 1830-1880. In Avant-Garde Art, eds. Thomas Band Hess, and John Ashbery. New York: Macmillan, 3–24.
- 10.
Rubin, James. 1981. Realism and Social Vision in Courbet and Proudhon. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- 11.
Bowness, Alan. 1972. Courbet’s ‘Atelier du Peintre’, Fiftieth Charlton Lecture on Art Newcastle upon Tyne: University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 30
- 12.
Hélène Toussaint, 1977.
- 13.
Ibid., 145. Worth adding here was Napoleon III’s devotion to dogs, which was widely known and often resulted in him being symbolised by the jackboot in cartoons and caricatures.
- 14.
Albert Boime, 2008. 213.
- 15.
Klaus Herding, 1991.
- 16.
Toussaint suggests that Courbet’s letter to Champfleury was purposefully dissembling (274). In another work Toussaint also suggests though that there are clues in the letter for those who have a knowledge of the slang of the period. See Toussaint, Hélène. 1979. ‘A propos d’une Critique’, Les Amis de Gustave Courbet. Bulletin de correspondance hellénique 61:10–13.
- 17.
Fried, Michael. 1992. Courbet’s Realism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fried writes, “Courbet’s letter to Champfleury thus epitomises the nondecisiveness of exactly the sort of “objective” evidence that positivist art history likes to think would settle all questions of interpretation.” 323
- 18.
Nochlin, 1988. 20.
- 19.
Ibid. 20
- 20.
Fried, 1992. 22.
- 21.
See Crapo, Paul 1995. The Problematics of Artistic Patronage under the Second Empire: Gustave Courbet’s Involved Relations with the Regime of Napoleon III. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 58 (2):241–261.
- 22.
- 23.
Fried, 1992. 158.
- 24.
Nochlin, Linda. 1971. Realism. London: Penguin, 130.
- 25.
- 26.
Crapo, 1995. 250. He puts emphasis on this particularly critical approach towards two figures. Two sinister figures, Emile de Girardin (symbolising the pro-Bonaparte press) and the “priest” Louis Veuillot, are represented as the worst of the conservative wing of the Church.
- 27.
Herding, 1991, 4.
- 28.
Toussaint mentions that the socialist is Alexander Herzen (256–257), a colleague of Proudhon, but her position was clarified in conversation with Linda Nochlin in Courbet Reconsidered, n. 15, 223.
- 29.
Crapo, 1995. 250.
- 30.
Cullen, Fintan. 1995. Visual Politics: Representation of Ireland: 1750–1950. Cork: Cork University Press, especially Chapter 4.
- 31.
Chu, 1992 . 134.
- 32.
Max Buchon was a close friend of Courbet and was exiled to Belgium during the reign of Napoleon III.
- 33.
Chu, 1992. 55–56.
- 34.
Herding, 1991. 57.
- 35.
Herding, 1991. 56. I am thinking of paintings such as François Guillaume Ménageot’s Leonardo Dying in the Arms of Francis I (c.1781).
- 36.
- 37.
Herding, 1991. 46.
- 38.
Ibid., 57
- 39.
Mainardi, 1990.; Herding also reads this battle between the state sanctioned image of the nation and sees it again as the artist’s autonomy directly. The mediating master signifier is that Courbet believes he is free based on the values of freedom of speech suggested by the Republic of 1848.
- 40.
Mainardi, Patricia. 1993. The End of the Salon: Art and the State in the Early Third Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- 41.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1993. The Field of Cultural Production. In The Field of Cultural Production, ed. Randal Johnson, 29–73. New York: Columbia University Press.
- 42.
Porterfield, Todd. 1998. The Allure of Empire: Art in the Service of French Imperialism, 1798–1836. Princeton: Princeton University Press. For the construction of nationalism through culture see Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger. 1983. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
- 43.
Rosanvallon, Pierre. 2006. Democracy Past and Future, ed. Samuel Moyn. New York: Columbia University Press.
- 44.
As I discussed in Watts, Oliver. 2014. Daumier and Replacing the King’s body. In Law, Culture and Visual Studies, eds. Richard K. Sherwin, and Anne Wagner, 421–443. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London: Springer.
- 45.
Chu, 2008; Schapiro, Meyer. 1941. Courbet and Popular Imagery: An essay on Realism and Naivete. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institues 4:164–191.
- 46.
Fried, 1992, 128. Another example is how Fried suggests that After Dinner (1849) relates to an illustration by Lorentz that appeared in February 1848. See also Schapiro, 1941.
- 47.
The French National Assembly approved the issue of the first French postage stamp on 24 August 1848. Most recently Marianne was represented in September 1999, used as an official seal or logo for the French Government on the European Union stamps. In this way Marianne can be located in relation to other countries use of a sovereign head (i.e. Elizabeth II effigy in the UK).
- 48.
At the inaugural meeting of the French National Convention there was a discussion concerning the new symbols of the Republic and the destruction of monarchical symbols, 21 September 1792.
- 49.
In our reading of the effigy the force of the Revolution that founded the Republic needed the same sublimation as monarchy.
- 50.
- 51.
See for a general discussion of the revolution and its symbols: Gombrich, Ernst Hans. 1979. The Dream of Reason: Symbolism of the French Revolution. British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 2 (3):187–205. Ozouf, Mona. 1988. Festival and the French Revolution. Trans. Alan Sheridan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 240.
- 52.
- 53.
Waller, Susan. 2006. The invention of the model: artists and models in Paris, 1830–1870. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 73.
- 54.
- 55.
Seibert, Margaret. 1983. A Political and a Pictorial Tradition Used in Gustave Courbet’s Real Allegory. The Art Bulletin 65 (2):311–316.; this was followed by a letter which highlighted the similarity of her approach to Herding which had not been credited (or seen), Seibert, Margaret. 1984. Letter. The Art Bulletin 66 (1); Moffit, John. 1987. Art and Politics: An Underlying Pictorial-Political Topos in Courbet’s “Real Allegory”. Artibus et Historiae 8 (15):183–193.
- 56.
- 57.
Seibert, 1983, 312.
- 58.
Ibid., 315–316.
- 59.
Seibert, instead, relying on previous art historical iconography and in particular a close reading of the obscure engraving of Johann Saenredam, Painter Painting a Young Woman, the women did represent love but has been ‘modernised’ and now represents Republican Truth and Beauty.
- 60.
Moffit, 1987. 184.
- 61.
Ibid., 188
- 62.
Ibid., n 24, 193. Moffit finds the reading too ‘explicit’ and feels that each figure should be seen more as principals of authority. He does not like the Masonic angle of the Toussaint/Herding reading, seeing no internal logic for it.
- 63.
Picasso apocryphally had a pair of green striped pants made for studio use based on this picture and his adoration of Courbet.
- 64.
Rubin, James Henry. 1980. Realism and Social Vision in Courbet & Proudhon, 90.
- 65.
In 1863 the men worked together on what would become The Principle of Art and Its Social Purpose, published after Proudhon’s death in 1865. Courbet wrote: “It’s marvelously funny I am swamped by manuscript; every day I write between five and ten pages of aesthetics. . . . We are at last going to have a real treatise of modern art, and the way, pointed out by me, is to run parallel with the Proudhonian philosophy.”
- 66.
Chu, 1992. 131–133.
- 67.
See for a further discussion of this in relation to Daumier’s work in Watts, 2014.
- 68.
- 69.
See Herding, 1991, Chapter 4: ‘Equality and Authority in Courbet’s Landscape Painting’.
- 70.
Herding, 1991, 64. Fried too noted the turn to landscape after this painting. A reason for this may be the tight censorship of the more political imagery of Courbet’s earlier “Realism”. Tentatively would also suggest that the genre historique became a popular mode of painting within the Salon and Expositions. Could the use of a lesser genre, landscape, not continue a trajectory towards disavowing the state sanctioned imagery of industrial capital and modernisation of the city, which it celebrated? That Herding sees the political allusion to Rousseau’s “state of nature” confirms this idea.
- 71.
Fried, 1992, 160–161.
- 72.
- 73.
- 74.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1968. The Social Contract. Trans. Maurice Cranston. London: Penguin Classics.
- 75.
Article 3 of the Declaration.
- 76.
Rousseau, 1968. 146, 151–154.
- 77.
Ribner, Jonathan C. 1999. Law and Justice in England and France. In Law and The Image: The Aesthetics of Law and the Authority of Art, eds. Costas Douzinas, and Lynda Nead. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 192.
- 78.
Ribner, Jonathan C. 1993. Broken Tablets. The Cult of the Law in French Art from David To Delacroix. Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, Chapter 6, ‘The Romantic Moses’.
- 79.
These empty, “to be written on pages” are reminiscent of Peter Goodrich’s wonderful analysis of the empty page in Goodrich, Peter. 1999. The Iconography of Nothing: Blank Spaces and the Representation of Law in Edward Vi and the Pope. In Law and The Image: The Aesthetics of Law and the Authority of Art, eds. Costas Douzinas, and Lynda Nead, 89–114. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press.
- 80.
See Fischer Taylor, Katherine. 1999. The Festival of Justice, Paris, 1849. In Law and The Image: The Aesthetics of Law and the Authority of Art, eds. Costas Douzinas, and Lynda Nead, 137–177. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press.
- 81.
Taylor, 199, 141; see also Mona Ozouf, 1988.
- 82.
Ibid., 144.
- 83.
Courbet letter to Champfleury 1854, published in Courbet, Gustave, and Petra ten Doesschate Chu. 1992. Letters of Gustave Courbet Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- 84.
Ribner, 1999. Ribner identifies this doubling in many places, for example he discusses a ceiling work of by M-J Blondel titled, France in the Midst of the Legislator Kings and French Jurisconsults, Receives the Constitutional Charter from Louis XVIII, (1827). A regal and crowned France humbly receives the Charter, Monetesquieu and ancien Regime royals are in attendance. This rather odd piece suggests that both allegories of France and the King are on the same page.
- 85.
Žižek, Slavoj. 1994. Mapping Ideology. London: Verso, 19.
- 86.
Barker, Emma. 1999. Case Study 2: The Museum in a Postmodern Era: The Musee D’Orsay. In Contemporary Cultures of Display, ed. Emma Barker. New York: Yale University Press. Barker writes: “Its overall effect is to reinforce a highly traditional conception of art history made up of individual geniuses whose unique creativity owes nothing to the world in which they lived”. 65
- 87.
Bal, Mieke. 1996. The Discourse of the Museum. In Thinking about Exhibitions, eds. Reesa Greenberg, Bruce W. Ferguson, and Sandy Nairne. New York: Routledge, 212.
- 88.
Legendre, Pierre, and Peter Goodrich. 1997. Glossary: Image. In Law and the Unconscious; A Legendre Reader, ed. Peter Goodrich. London: Macmillan, 260.
- 89.
Michael Detmold in his final lecture series as Emeritus Professor of Law at the University of Adelaide linked natural law, love and the law, Detmold, Michael. 2009. ‘Four Lectures on the Law of Love,’ March/April 2009: http://www.law.adelaide.edu.au/documents/law_of_love_lectures.pdf.
- 90.
- 91.
Delacroix, ‘Diaries’, 3 August 1855 quoted in Harrison, Charles. 1998. Art in Theory, 1815–1900: Wiley-Blackwell, 361.
- 92.
- 93.
- 94.
Hunt, Lynn. 1991. Eroticism and the Body Politic. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- 95.
Here Enjoy is connected to the French word Jouissance.
- 96.
- 97.
Chu, 1992. 132. Chu dryly observes, “Courbet apparently abandoned the idea for the naughty subject of the painting within the painting and decided on a Franche-Comté landscape instead”. 133
- 98.
Lacan, Jacques. 1966. Kant avec Sade. In Écrits. Paris: Seuil; see Žižek, Slavoj. 1999. Kant with (or against) Sade. In The Žižek Reader, eds. Elizabeth Wright, and Edmond Wright. Wiley-Blackwell (Chapter 13), Žižek, Slavoj. 2006. The Parallax View. Cambridge/London: The MIT Press, 91–94.; Zupancic, Alenka 2012. The Ethics of the Real: Kant, Lacan. London/New York: Verso, 80–82, Zupancic sees the reading of Sade and Kant together as, “Thus for Kant freedom is susceptible to limitation, either by pleasure (in the form of any pathological motivation) or by death of the subject.” 82
- 99.
By excluding the unconscious the Master discourse represents the other exactly within the S2 (knowledge).
- 100.
Milner, John. 2000. Art, War and Revolution in France, 1870–1871: Myth, Reportage and Reality Yale: Yale University Press, 26; Milner suggests Courbet’s friends and supporters were very appreciative of this snub to the Emperor and held a dinner in his honour at 10 francs a head, in 1870.
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Watts, O. (2018). Courbet and the Nude Republican Master. In: Huygebaert, S., Condello, A., Marusek, S., Antaki, M. (eds) Sensing the Nation's Law. Studies in the History of Law and Justice, vol 13. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75497-0_4
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