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Legal Aspects of Satellite Based Earth Observation—An Introduction

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Satellite-Based Earth Observation

Abstract

This presentation aims to provide a brief insight into the legal regulation of space data, both nationally and internationally. Starting with the Remote Sensing Principles, a set of rules intended to provide legitimate access to Earth Observation Data “on reasonable terms,” the presentation then turns to more recent legal models for licensing Earth Observation Systems taking into account national interests in terms of climate and foreign policy interests. The paper emphasizes the driving forces behind Earth observation regulations and the importance of access to Earth observation data; In particular, different accesses can be observed by examining how the data are made available for disaster relief and for purely economic purposes. Complex issues of normative and/or contractual licensing and intellectual property issues need to be considered in more detail. This is an area where broadband internet has enabled new growth areas at the downstream level. Coherent arguments are present for expanding the use of Earth observation data, and for the deployment of earth observation data into new information services or products.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Principle II United Nations Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space. G.A. Res. 41/65, U.N. Doc. AIRES/41/65, December 3, 1986. [Hereinafter: UN Remote Sensing Principles]. It reflects the general UN approach. It origins e.g. in Para. 3 and Art. I (1) of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, entered into force Oct. 10, 1967, 610 U.N.T.S. 205. [Hereinafter: Outer Space Treaty (OST)]; Art. 4 (1) Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, entered into force July 11, 1984, 1363 U.N.T.S. 21; Preambular para. 3 G.A. Res. 1962 (XVIII), UNGA, 18th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/RES/18/1962 (1963).

  2. 2.

    Definition used in the Draft report UN Working Group on remote sensing of the earth by satellites, 2nd session, 8 February 1973, UN Doc A/AC 105/C1/WG4/L4.

  3. 3.

    Note that the term “Earth observation data” as used in this chapter does not differ from the term “remote sensing data” as used e.g. in the UN Remote Sensing Principles.

  4. 4.

    The technical details have been discussed in the previous chapters of these Proceedings.

  5. 5.

    See for Smith [2].

  6. 6.

    European Data Relay System. http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Telecommunications_Integrated_Applications/EDRS/Overview. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

  7. 7.

    See further: Lee [3]; Smith [4]; for the strict exclusion of the military use of space activities see: Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen, signed in Paris 9th February 1920 [also known as Spitsbergen or Svalbard Treaty].

  8. 8.

    A detailed insight into the technical developments in the area of EO will be given in the previous section of this book.

  9. 9.

    EDRS ground segment. www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Telecommunications_Integrated_Applications/EDRS/Ground_segmEnt. Accessed 01 Dec 2017; see also: Smith [5].

  10. 10.

    See Evidence from Space: Use of space-derived earth observation information as evidence in judicial and administrative proceedings (2012), Report of the Study Commission by ESA ESRIN [Document ESA-ISPL/EO 76/final], London.

  11. 11.

    GEOSS Data Sharing Principles; see also: Doldirina C. Open Data and Earth Observations: The Case of Opening Up Access to and Use of Earth Observation Data Through the Global Earth Observation System of Systems, 6 (2015) JIPITEC 73, para. 1.

  12. 12.

    International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), adopted on 2 Nov 1973. [Hereinafter: MARPOL Convention].

  13. 13.

    See e.g. Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui (Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07); Prosecutor v. Francis Kirimi Muthaura and Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta (Case No. ICC-01/09-02/11).

  14. 14.

    See e.g. Burkina Faso v Mali, The Frontier Dispute (1986) representing the first use of satellite data as evidence in front of a court; Qatar v Bahrain (2001).

  15. 15.

    See e.g. Prosecutor v. Karadžić (IT-95-5/18-I); Prosecutor v. Ramush Haradinaj (IT-04-84-T).

  16. 16.

    PlanetLabs. https://www.planet.com/; Urthcast. https://www.urthecast.com/; Astrosat. https://astrosat.space/; SpyMeSat. https://www.spymesat.com/. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

  17. 17.

    Continuous monitoring is ensured in Europe by EMSA, Cleanseanet, SeaU, MyOcean2 (GMES), Copernicus.

  18. 18.

    Théau [6].

  19. 19.

    Title 51, U.S.C., National and Commercial Space Programs, Subtitle VI, Earth Observations, formerly Title II of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992, 15 U.S.C. § 5601, et seq.

  20. 20.

    Satellitendatensicherheitsgesetz (November 23, 2007) BGBl. I S. 2590, as amended (Germany); for other examples see also: Remote Sensing Systems Act, RSSA 2005, c. 45 (Canada).

  21. 21.

    French Law on Space Operations, 2008; for further national rules under the second category see also: Netherlands, Rules Concerning Space Activities and the Establishment of a Registry of Space Objects (Space Activities Act), 2006; cf. § 1 Austria, Space Law, 2011 (Weltraumgesetz BGBl., 2011, I, 132 27 December 2011).

  22. 22.

    See below Sect. 2.2.

  23. 23.

    Title 51, U.S.C., National and Commercial Space Programs, Subtitle VI, Earth Observations, formerly Title II of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992, 15 U.S.C. § 5601, et seq.

  24. 24.

    eoPortal Directory. Landsat-7. https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/l/landsat-7. Accessed 29 Nov 2017.

  25. 25.

    Madders [7]; see also: von der Dunk [8].

  26. 26.

    Statuts de la Societé Arianespace, Mar. 26, 1980.

  27. 27.

    Incorporated in 1982 as GIE (Groupment d´Interet Economique) of CNES under French law in a similar process to the establishment of Arianespace two years earlier.

  28. 28.

    Campenon [9]

  29. 29.

    See: Convention for the Establishment of a European Space Agency, Art. II, May 30, 1975, 14 I.L.M. 864.

  30. 30.

    Satellitendatensicherheitsgesetz (November 23, 2007) BGBl. I S. 2590, as amended (Germany), supra note 17.

  31. 31.

    TerraSAR-X—Deutschlands Radar-Auge im All (2014). http://www.dlr.de/dlr/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-10377/565_read-436/#/gallery/350. Accessed: 29 Nov 2017.

  32. 32.

    Infoterra Ltd was launched in January 2001 as wholly owned subsidiary of EADS Astrium with offices across Europe. It merged with SPOT-image in France and EADS Astrium and is now known as Astrium Services’ GEO Information Division. For further information: Airbus Defence and Space (2017). http://www.intelligence-airbusds.com/en/209-our-activity. Accessed: 01 Dec 2017; see also: SPOT-6 and SPOT-7 Commercial Imaging Constellation. https://eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/s/spot-6-7#foot2%29. Accessed 01 December 2017.

  33. 33.

    Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Overview. http://elib.dlr.de/5967/. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

  34. 34.

    Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, Dec. 19, 1995.

  35. 35.

    Council Regulation (EC) No 428/2009 of 5 May 2009 setting up a Community regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering and transit of dual-use items [OJ L 134/1] as amended by Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) …/…of 26.9.2017 amending Council Regulation (EC) No 428/2009.

  36. 36.

    See also: Schmidt-Tedd and Kroymann [10].

  37. 37.

    von der Dunk [8, p. 433].

  38. 38.

    According to Arts. 11(2) and 16 of the Act this can be done e.g. by lowering the resolution of respective EO imagery.

  39. 39.

    The rationale of freedom of exploration and use is reflected in Principle IV of the United Nations Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space. G.A. Res. 41/65, U.N. Doc. AIRES/41/65, December 3, 1986.

  40. 40.

    Charter of the United Nations, entered into force Oct. 24, 1945, 892 U.N.T.S. 119. [Hereinafter: United Nations Charter].

  41. 41.

    Crawford J. (2012) Brownlie’s Principles Of Public International Law; Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Libya v. Malta) (Judgment) 1985, I.C.J. 13 (June 3), para. 27; Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. US) (Merits) (Judgment) 1986, I.C.J. 13 (June 27), para. 183; Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion) 1996, I.C.J. 226 (July 8), para. 64.

  42. 42.

    Shaw M. (2014) International Law, 53.

  43. 43.

    See Fn. 20.

  44. 44.

    Kopal [11]; see also: Smith and Doldirina [12]; Williams [13].

  45. 45.

    Smith and Doldirina [14].

  46. 46.

    UN Doc. A/CONF.184/6, Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna, 19–30 July 1999, pp. 67 f, para 373.

  47. 47.

    Smith [15].

  48. 48.

    See special provisions on the prevention of man-made and natural disaster in Principles X and XI.

  49. 49.

    UN Remote Sensing Principles, Principle XII.

  50. 50.

    von der Dunk [8, p. 417]; see also: Resolution on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, U.N.G.A. Res. 1803(XVII), U.N. Doc. A/5217 (Dec. 14, 1962); Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, U.N.G.A. Res. 3281(XXIX), U.N. Doc. A/19631 (Dec. 12, 1974); Cassese A. (2001), International Law 399–401; Cheng [16].

  51. 51.

    United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response, U.N.G.A. Res. 61/110, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/110 (Dec. 6, 1999); as amended by Res. 59/116 of Dec. 10, 2004.

  52. 52.

    Charter On Cooperation To Achieve The Coordinated Use Of Space Facilities In The Event Of Natural Or Technological Disasters, Oct. 20, 2000, http://www.disasterscharter.org/chartere.html.

  53. 53.

    UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal (2017). http://www.un-spider.org/. Accessed 29 Nov 2017.

  54. 54.

    UN-SPIDER March 2015 Newsletter: Space-based Information for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015). http://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/newsletter/un-spider-newsletter-115-space-based-information-disaster-risk-reduction. Accessed: 29 Nov 2017.

  55. 55.

    UN-SPIDER June 2013 Newsletter: Earth Observation for Disaster Response (2013). www.un-spider.org/sites/default/files/UN-SPIDER_NL_EO_online.pdf. Accessed: 29 Nov 2017.

  56. 56.

    UN-SPIDER’s Emergency Support (2017). http://www.un-spider.org/advisory-support/emergency-support. Accessed: 29 Nov 2017.

  57. 57.

    As such it reflects i.a. the major concept of cooperation established under the OST and within the ESA Charter.

  58. 58.

    Convention of the World Meteorological Organization, Oct. 11, 1947, 5 A.T.S. 1950. [Hereinafter Resolution 40].

  59. 59.

    Directive 2007/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2007 establishing an Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community. [Hereinafter: INSPIRE Directive].

  60. 60.

    Hurtz [17].

  61. 61.

    Craglia [18].

  62. 62.

    About INSPIRE. https://inspire.ec.europa.eu/about-inspire/563. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

  63. 63.

    INSPIRE Implementing Rules. https://inspire.ec.europa.eu/inspire-implementing-rules/51763. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

  64. 64.

    See also: Observing the Earth—Copernicus. http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/Overview3. Accessed 01 Dec 2017.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Leuphana University, Lüneburg, Germany

    Lesley Jane Smith

  2. University of London, London, UK

    Gina Petrovici

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  1. Lesley Jane Smith
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  2. Gina Petrovici
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Correspondence to Lesley Jane Smith .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Competence Centre Space Law/Space Policy, Subpoint NPOC Austria/ECSL, University of Graz, Graz, Steiermark, Austria

    Christian Brünner

  2. Chamber of Commerce Steiermark, Graz, Steiermark, Austria

    Georg Königsberger

  3. Competence Centre Space Law/Space Policy, University of Graz, Graz, Steiermark, Austria

    Hannes Mayer

  4. Competence Centre Space Law/Space Policy, University of Graz, Graz, Steiermark, Austria

    Anita Rinner

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Smith, L.J., Petrovici, G. (2018). Legal Aspects of Satellite Based Earth Observation—An Introduction. In: Brünner, C., Königsberger, G., Mayer, H., Rinner, A. (eds) Satellite-Based Earth Observation . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74805-4_18

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