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Diverging Paths: Euratom and the OEEC, 1955–1958

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Britain, Europe and Civil Nuclear Energy, 1945–62

Part of the book series: Britain and the World ((BAW))

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Abstract

Addressing the political connotations of civil nuclear cooperation in Europe during the mid-1950s, this chapter shows how Britain’s support for the intergovernmental model of nuclear partnership was crippled by organisational delays at crucial junctures. From being in the driving seat in 1955, Britain was left scrambling to posit an OEEC-backed alternative to the new integrated atomic research body now being constructed by the Six Messina powers. As such, this chapter will demonstrate that the traditional criticisms made by historians that Britain’s atomic authorities were inherently Eurosceptic are a little wide of the mark, noting instead that London’s nuclear mandarins posed a ‘middle course’ through which they could retain their sovereignty while also offering some politically useful cooperation with European neighbours.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mervyn O’Driscoll, “Missing the Nuclear Boat? British Policy and French Military Nuclear Ambitions during the Euratom Foundation Negotiations, 1955–56,” Diplomacy and Statecraft, 9 (1998), 136.

  2. 2.

    Peter Mangold, The Almost Impossible Ally: Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), 74.

  3. 3.

    John Foster Dulles to Winthrop Aldrich, 9 January 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library (DDE), JFD Chronological Series, Box 13, John Foster Dulles Chronological January 1956 (3).

  4. 4.

    Alan S. Milward, The United Kingdom and the European Community, Volume I: The Rise and Fall of a National Strategy, 1945–63 (London: Frank Cass, 2002) 224.

  5. 5.

    Alan S. Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation-State (London: Routledge, 2000) 92.

  6. 6.

    David Painter, Oil and the American Century: The Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Oil Policy 1941–1954 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 153–165; David Painter, ‘Oil and the Marshall Plan ’, The Business History Review, 58 (1984), 359–383.

  7. 7.

    John Gillingham, Coal, Steel and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945–55: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1991), 48; Dietmar Petzina, Wolfgang F. Stolper, and Michael Hudson, “The Origin of the European Coal and Steel Community: Economic Forces and Political Interests,” Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 137 (1981), 458.

  8. 8.

    Vincent Lagendijk, “‘To Consolidate Peace’? The International Electro-technical Community and the Grid for the United States of Europe,” Journal of Contemporary History, 47 (2012), 402–426.

  9. 9.

    Alan McKinlay, Helen Mercer and Neil Rollings, “Reluctant Europeans? The Federation of British Industries and European Integration, 1945–63,” Business History, 42 (2000), 92; James R.V. Ellison, “Perfidious Albion? Britain, Plan G and European Integration, 1955–56,” Contemporary British History, 10 (1996), 4–5.

  10. 10.

    McKinlay, Mercer and Rollings, “Reluctant Europeans?,” 97.

  11. 11.

    Integration of Western European Coal and Steel Industries: Commonwealth Implications, Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, 3 July 1950, National Archives (TNA), Cabinet Papers (CAB), 129/41.

  12. 12.

    Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 359–360.

  13. 13.

    Joanne Gowa and Soo Yeon Kim, “An Exclusive Country Club: The Effects of the GATT on Trade, 1950–94,” World Politics, 57 (2005), 457–460.

  14. 14.

    Richard Toye, “The Attlee Government, the Imperial Preference System and the Creation of the Gatt,” The English Historical Review, 118 (2003), 939.

  15. 15.

    Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 171.

  16. 16.

    Ibid., 191.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., 168.

  18. 18.

    B. W. Ilbery, “The Diffusion of Nuclear Power in Europe,” Geography, 66 (1981), 297; George A. Gonzalez, Energy and Empire: The Politics of Nuclear and Solar Power in the United States (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012), 59–61.

  19. 19.

    “Some Aspects of the European Energy Problem,” Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe, accessed 11 July 2017, http://www.cvce.eu/obj/louis_armand_some_aspects_of_the_european_energy_problem-en-6761172f-1f18-45b0-a247-e50faedb0e5d.html. Copyright OEEC.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    F. Roy Willis, France , Germany, and the New Europe, 1945–1967 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 104.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., 80–84.

  23. 23.

    Michael Newman, “The British Labour Party,” in Socialist Parties and the Question of Europe in the 1950s, ed. Richard T. Griffiths (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1993), 165.

  24. 24.

    Vertrag über die Begründung einer Assoziation (Verband) Zwischen den Vereinigten Königreich von Grossbritannien und Nordirland und der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (Trans: Treaty Concerning the Establishment of an Association Between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the European Community), Auswärtiges Amt, Politiches Archiv (Political Archive of the German Foreign Office ), Berlin (AA), B20–210, Bd. 23; The first reference to ‘Schumania’ appears in the Secretary’s Notebook for the Cabinet Meeting on 5 June 1951, TNA, CAB, 195/9.

  25. 25.

    Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (London: Pimlico, 2007), 159.

  26. 26.

    Joaquín Roy, “All Roads Lead to Rome: Background, Content and Legacy of the Treaties on the European Economic and European Atomic Energy Communities,” in Designing the European Union: From Paris to Lisbon, ed. Finn Laursen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan , 2012), 49–50.

  27. 27.

    European Integration (Messina Conference) Report By Officials, Annex A: Communique Issued at the Conclusion of the Messina Conference, 29 June 1955, TNA, CAB, 129/76, 1–2.

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Anjo G. Harryvan, In Pursuit of Influence: The Netherlands ’ European Policy During the Formative Years of the European Union, 1952–1973 (Brussels: PIE Peter Lang, 2009), 80–82.

  30. 30.

    Andrew Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht (London: Routledge, 1999), 140; Gillingham, Coal, Steel and the Rebirth of Europe, 362; Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State, 206.

  31. 31.

    Mervyn O’Driscoll, review of The United States and the Nuclear Dimension of European Integration, by Gunnar Skogmar, The International History Review, 28, 1 (2006), 213.

  32. 32.

    Gunnar Skogmar, The United States and the Nuclear Dimension of European Integration (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan , 2004), 114–257.

  33. 33.

    Gonzalez, Energy and Empire, 59.

  34. 34.

    Resolution of the Council Concerning Methods of Co-Operation in the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Power, 10 June 1955, Historical Archives of the European Union, Florence (HAEU), Papers of the Organisation for European Economic Co-Operation (OEEC )-262. Copyright OEEC.

  35. 35.

    Council Minutes of the 316th Meeting held at Chateau de la Muette, 28/29 February 1956, 3 July 1956, HAEU, OEEC -63, 72–73.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., 70.

  37. 37.

    Presidential Address to the Empire Industries Association, 3 December 1952, Churchill College Archives (CC), Leopold Amery Papers (AMEL), 1/7/16, Reproduced with permission of the Master and Fellows of Churchill College, Cambridge.

  38. 38.

    Speech at Conservative Party Conference, Scarborough, 9 October 1952, CC, AMEL, 1/7/16, Reproduced with permission of the Master and Fellows of Churchill College, Cambridge.

  39. 39.

    N. Piers Ludlow, “A Waning Force: The Treasury and British European Policy, 1955–63,” Contemporary British History, 17 (2003), 88–90.

  40. 40.

    D.R. Thorpe, Eden : The Life and Times of Anthony Eden , 1897–1977 (London: Chatto & Windus, 2003), 451–454.

  41. 41.

    Telegram from Vollrath von Maltzan to German Foreign Ministry, Bonn, 11 July 1955, AA, B20–210, Bd. 36.

  42. 42.

    Report by Officials on the Messina Conference, 29 June 1955, TNA, CAB, 129/76.

  43. 43.

    Annex B: Note of a Meeting held in HM Treasury, 21 June 1955, TNA, CAB, 129/76, 1.

  44. 44.

    Ibid.

  45. 45.

    Ibid.

  46. 46.

    Secretary’s Notebook of a Cabinet Meeting’, 30 June 1955, TNA, CAB, 195/13/61.

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

  48. 48.

    Official Committee on Atomic Energy, Working Party on International Collaboration: Composition and Terms of Reference, 8 July 1955, TNA, CAB, 134/758.

  49. 49.

    Minutes of a Meeting of the Working Party on International Collaboration, 15 July 1955, TNA, CAB, 134/758, 1–2.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., 2.

  51. 51.

    Multilateral European Atomic Energy Collaboration: Interim Report by Working Party on International Collaboration, 19 July 1955, TNA, CAB, 134/758, 1.

  52. 52.

    Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State, 205.

  53. 53.

    Jean Monnet to John Foster Dulles , probably 1956, HAEU, Jean Monnet American Sources (JMAS)-15.

  54. 54.

    Ulrich Enders, “Integration oder Kooperation? Ludwig Erhard und Franz Etzel im Streit über die Politik der Europäischen Zusammenarbeit 1954–1956,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 45 (1997), 145.

  55. 55.

    Letter from the Secretary of State to Foreign Secretary Macmillan , 10 December 1955, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States , 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 362–364.

  56. 56.

    Memorandum of a Conversation, Department of State, Washington, 22 November 1955, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States , 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 350–351; Memorandum of a Conversation, White House, Washington, 30 January 1956, 2:15–4 p.m., quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–57, Western Europe and Canada , Vol. XXVII, ed. John P. Glennon (Washington: US GPO, 1992), 619–621.

  57. 57.

    Memorandum from the Secretary of State to the President, 9 January 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States , 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 388–389.

  58. 58.

    John Foster Dulles to Jean Monnet , 10 February 1956, Seeley G. Mudd Archives, Princeton University (MAP), MC016, Box 106, Monnet , Jean, 1956.

  59. 59.

    Charles Williams, Adenauer : The Father of the New Germany (London, 2000), 426–427.

  60. 60.

    Letter from Konrad Adenauer to Federal Ministers, 19 January 1956, quoted in The Making of German Democracy: West Germany During the Adenauer Era, 1945–65, ed. Armin Grünbacher (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010), 203–205.

  61. 61.

    Stand der Verhandlungen der Brüsseler Vorkonferenz zur Erweiterung des Europäischen Integration, 16 December 1955 (Trans: Status of the Negotiations of the Brussels Preconference on the Expansion of European Integration), Memorandum by Heinrich von Brentano , AA, B22–202, Bd. 18, 19.

  62. 62.

    Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State, 204–205; R.F. Pocock, Nuclear Power: Its Development in the United Kingdom (Old Woking: Unwin Brothers, 1977), 119–126.

  63. 63.

    Henry R. Nau, “Collective Responses to R&D Problems in Western Europe, 1955–1958 and 1968–1973,” International Organization, 29 (1975), 623–625.

  64. 64.

    Skogmar, The United States and the Nuclear Dimension of European Integration, 183.

  65. 65.

    Jonathan Helmreich, “The United States and the Formation of Euratom ,” Diplomatic History, 15 (1991), 397; Memorandum from the Under-Secretary of State (Hoover) to the Secretary of State, 24 October 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 476–477.

  66. 66.

    Helmreich, “The United States and the Formation of Euratom ,” 400; Memorandum of Conversation with Mr Jean Monnet , Memorandum by John Foster Dulles , 18 January 1957, DDE, JFD Chronological Series, Box 14, John Foster Dulles Chronological January 1957 (2).

  67. 67.

    Mathieu Segers and Daniela Busscher-Weber, “Zwischen Pax Americana und Pakt Atomica: Das Deutsch-Amerikanische Verhältnis Während der EURATOM-Verhandlungen 1955–1957,” Vierteljahresheft für Zeitgeschichte, 54 (2006), 436.

  68. 68.

    Ludwig Erhard on European Integration, quoted in The Making of German Democracy, ed. Grünbacher, 202–203; Enders, “Integration oder Kooperation?,” 147.

  69. 69.

    The Views of German Industry on Euratom , Translation Copy from the Federation of British Industries, 9 August 1956, TNA, Foreign Office Papers (FO), 371/121964; Segers and Busscher-Weber, “Zwischen Pax Americana und Pakt Atomica,” 445.

  70. 70.

    F.R. Hoyer Millar to Harold Caccia , 2 February 1956, TNA, FO, 371/122048, 2.

  71. 71.

    Telegram from United Kingdom Delegation, Paris, to Foreign Office , 3 February 1956, TNA, FO, 371/122048.

  72. 72.

    Ibid.

  73. 73.

    Ibid., 2–3.

  74. 74.

    Resolution of Monnet Committee, Telegram from US Embassy, Paris, to State Department, 19 January 1956, MAP, MC016, Box 106, Monnet , Jean, 1956, 5.

  75. 75.

    Pocock, Nuclear Power: Its Development in the United Kingdom, 84.

  76. 76.

    Co-Operation in Atomic Energy with Western Europe, Paper by John Cockcroft , 14 February 1956, TNA, Atomic Energy Papers (AB), 16/1843.

  77. 77.

    J.A. Jukes to Edwin Plowden , 23 February 1956, TNA, AB, 16/1843.

  78. 78.

    J.C. Walker to William Strath , 16 February 1956, TNA, AB, 16/1843.

  79. 79.

    Cabinet Mutual Aid Committee—Provision of Training Facilities, Note by the Atomic Energy Authority, 14 February 1956, TNA, AB, 16/1843.

  80. 80.

    Euratom , Note by William Strath , 20 February 1957, TNA, AB, 41/666.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., 1–2.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., 2–3.

  83. 83.

    Minutes of a Meeting of the Atomic Energy Executive , 26 February 1957, TNA, AB, 41/559.

  84. 84.

    “On Not Joining Euratom ,” The Times, 25 September 1957.

  85. 85.

    Siegfried Balke to Heinrich von Brentano , 5 July 1957, AA, B22–202, Bd. 55.

  86. 86.

    Minutes of a Meeting of the Atomic Energy Executive , 27 June 1957, TNA, AB, 41/559, 1.

  87. 87.

    Edwin Plowden to Harold Macmillan , 16 July 1957, TNA, Prime Ministerial Papers (PREM), 11/2848.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    Alan S. Milward, The United Kingdom and the European Community, Volume I: The Rise and Fall of a National Strategy, 1945–63 (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 223.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., 222.

  91. 91.

    Mauro Elli, “The Suave Nature of Nuclear Power: British Dealings with Euratom , 1957–60,” in Which Europe(s)? New Approaches in European Integration History, ed. K. Rücker and L. Warlouzet (Brussels: PIE, 2006), 198–200.

  92. 92.

    Mauro Elli, “A Politically-Tinted Rationality: Britain vs. Euratom , 1955–63,” Journal of European Integration History, 12 (2006), 124.

  93. 93.

    Stuart A. Butler , “The Struggle for Power: Britain and Euratom , 1955–63,” The International History Review, 36 (2014), 330, 338.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.; Butler , “The Struggle for Power,” 326.

  95. 95.

    W. Harpham, British OEEC Delegation, Paris, to D.A.H. Wright, Foreign Office , 3 February 1956, TNA, FO, 371/122048.

  96. 96.

    Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State, 204–205; Pocock, Nuclear Power: Its Development in the United Kingdom, 119–126.

  97. 97.

    Empfehlung der Arbeitsgruppe zum Studium der Probleme der Errichtung einer Anlage für die Isotopentrennung von Uran betreffend die Gründung einer Studienkommission’ (Trans: Recommendations of the Working Group Studying the Problems Surrounding the Establishment of a Facility for the Isotopic Separation of Uranium Regarding the Foundation of a Study Commission), 7 February 1956, AA, B22–202, Bd. 18.

  98. 98.

    Telegram from United Kingdom Delegation, Paris to Foreign Office , 3 February 1956, TNA, FO, 371/122048.

  99. 99.

    Jean-Marc Wolff, History of the Eurochemic Company (Paris: OECD, 1996), 111.

  100. 100.

    Minutes of a Meeting of the Official Committee on Atomic Energy, 24 January 1955, TNA, CAB, 134/753, 6; Minutes of a Meeting of the Official Committee on Atomic Energy, 8 November 1955, TNA, CAB, 134/753, 3.

  101. 101.

    O’Driscoll, “Missing the Nuclear Boat,” n.1. Makins ’ quote is dated 21 February 1956.

  102. 102.

    W. Harpham, United Kingdom Delegation, Paris, to D.A.H. Wright, Foreign Office , 3 February 1956, TNA, FO, 371/122048, 3.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., 5.

  104. 104.

    Gregoire Mallard and Andrew Lakoff, “How Claims to Know the Future are used to Understand the Present: Techniques of Prospection in the National Security,” in Social Knowledge in the Making, eds. Charles Camic, Neil Gross and Michele Lamont (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 351; “A Target for Euratom ,” University of Pittsburgh Archive of European Integration, accessed 11 July 2017, http://aei.pitt.edu/35730/, 32–33; Josef L. Kunz, “Treaty Establishing the European Defense Community,” American Journal of International Law, 47 (1953), 279–280.

  105. 105.

    Joachim Radkau and Lothar Hahn, Aufstieg und Fall der Deutschen Atomwirtschaft (Munich: Oekom, 2013), 116.

  106. 106.

    O’Driscoll, “Missing the Nuclear Boat,” 153–154.

  107. 107.

    Cathryn Carson, Heisenberg in the Atomic Age: Science and the Public Sphere (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2010), 244, 320.

  108. 108.

    Radkau and Hahn, Aufstieg und Fall der Deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 120–123.

  109. 109.

    Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation-State, 198.

  110. 110.

    Telegram from the Assistant Chief of the Mission in Berlin (Gufler) to the Department of State, 4 October 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 472–473.

  111. 111.

    Telegram from the Ambassador in Germany (Conant) to the Department of State, 30 October 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 480–481.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.; Jeffrey Glen Giauque, Grand Designs and Visions of Unity: The Atlantic Powers and the Reorganization of Western Europe, 1955–1963 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 37.

  113. 113.

    M. Pineau, Ministre des Affaires Étrangères, aux Representants Diplomatiques de France à Bonn, Rome, Bruxelles, La Haye, Luxembourg , Londres, Washington (Trans: M. Pineau, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to Diplomatic Representatives in Bonn, Rome, Brussels, The Hague, Luxembourg, London, Washington), 8 November 1956, Documents Diplomatiques Francais, Vol. III (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1987), 249.

  114. 114.

    Diane B. Kunz, “The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis ,” in Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences, eds. W.M. Roger Louis and Roger Owen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 224–225; Maurice Vaïsse, “Post-Suez France ,” in Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences, eds. Louis and Owen, 335–337.

  115. 115.

    Vaïsse, “Post-Suez France ,” 336–337.

  116. 116.

    Record of a Conversation at No. 10 Downing Street at 5.00 p.m. on 15 January 1957, TNA, PREM, 11/2848, 1.

  117. 117.

    Ibid.

  118. 118.

    Wolfram Kaiser, Using Europe, Abusing the Europeans: Britain and European Integration, 1945–63 (Basingstoke: Macmillan , 1996), 85.

  119. 119.

    Keith Kyle, Suez: Britain’s End of Empire in the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011), 542.

  120. 120.

    Letter from the Ambassador in France (Dillon ) to the Secretary of State, 19 November 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 487–488.

  121. 121.

    Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Elbrick) and the Special Assistant to the Secretary of State for Atomic Energy Affairs (Smith) to the Secretary of State, 3 December 1956, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 491–495.

  122. 122.

    Jean Monnet to John Foster Dulles , 30 January 1957, MAP, 016, Box 120, Monnet , Jean, 1957; Richard Hewlett and Jack Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–61: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 404–405.

  123. 123.

    Hewlett and Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 404–405.

  124. 124.

    John Foster Dulles to Dwight Eisenhower , 31 January 1957, DDE, White House Central File, Official File, Box 755, European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) (1).

  125. 125.

    Hewlett and Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 431; Memorandum of Conference with the President, The White House, Washington, 6 February 1957, quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957, Western European Security and Integration, Vol. IV, ed. William Z. Slany (Washington: US GPO, 1988), 516–518.

  126. 126.

    HAEU, Jules Gueron Papers (JG)-113, contains the details of the visit from 8–25 July 1957; Invitation to President of Euratom to Visit United States , Department of State Press Release, 28 February 1958, MAP, MC 016, Box 138, Atomic Weapons and Disarmament, 1959.

  127. 127.

    Harold Caccia to Selwyn Lloyd , 16 February 1957, TNA, AB, 16/2154.

  128. 128.

    Foreign Office Memorandum from D.A.H. Wright to J.A.M. Majoribanks Regarding a Visit of the “Three Wise Men” to Britain’, 29 November 1956, TNA, FO, 371/121969.

  129. 129.

    Edwin Plowden to Lord Salisbury , 25 February 1957, TNA, AB, 16/2154.

  130. 130.

    Note of a Meeting with the Three Wise Men of Euratom , 26 February 1957, TNA, AB, 16/2154, 3.

  131. 131.

    “A Target for Euratom ,” 18. In this sense, Euratom was essentially a response to oil security issues in the same manner as Britain’s 1957 White Paper . See Roy H. Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010), 53.

  132. 132.

    “A Target for Euratom ,” 29, 40.

  133. 133.

    Ibid., 32.

  134. 134.

    Kaiser, Using Europe, Abusing the Europeans, 25.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., 92.

  136. 136.

    Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union, 55.

  137. 137.

    Christian Deubner, “The Expansion of West German Capital and the Founding of Euratom ,” International Organization, 33 (1979), 223.

  138. 138.

    Council Minutes of the 316th Meeting held at Chateau de la Muette, 28/29 February 1956, 3 July 1956, HAEU, OEEC -63, 56–63.

  139. 139.

    Wolff, History of the Eurochemic Company, 69–72.

  140. 140.

    Ibid., 72.

  141. 141.

    Council Minutes of the 316th Meeting held at Chateau de la Muette, 28/29 February 1956, 3 July 1956, HAEU, OEEC- 63, 6.

  142. 142.

    Decision of the Council of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation Establishing a European Nuclear Energy Agency and Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy (Parl. Papers, 1958, XXIX.385), Cmnd. 357, 3.

  143. 143.

    Submission to Ministers: Establishment of the OEEC European Nuclear Energy Agency, 25 November 1957, TNA, Treasury Papers (T), 234/380.

  144. 144.

    Telegram No. 438 from Permanent UK Delegation to OEEC , Paris, to Foreign Office , 6 December 1957, TNA, T, 234/380.

  145. 145.

    Telegram No. 476 from Permanent UK Delegation to OEEC , Paris, to Foreign Office , 16 December 1957, TNA, T, 234/380.

  146. 146.

    Decision of the Council of the Organisation for European Economic Co-Operation Establishing a European Nuclear Energy Agency and Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 20 December 1957, TNA, T, 234/380. Copyright OEEC.

  147. 147.

    Ibid.

  148. 148.

    Participation of Non-Member Countries in the Nuclear Work of the OEEC , Memorandum by Pierre Huet, 23 November 1957, AA, B22–202, Bd. 15. Copyright OEEC.

  149. 149.

    Nau, “Collective Responses to R&D Problems in Western Europe: 1955–1958 and 1968–1973,” 625.

  150. 150.

    Hansard, HC, vol. 583, cols. 968–969, 4 March 1958.

  151. 151.

    Experimental Reactors, Proposals for their Co-Operative Development in Europe, OEEC Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy, March 1957, TNA, AB, 6/2010, 6.

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Theaker, M. (2018). Diverging Paths: Euratom and the OEEC, 1955–1958. In: Britain, Europe and Civil Nuclear Energy, 1945–62. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73927-4_5

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